Parasaurolophus, often called the parasaur, is a genus of large hadrosaurid dinosaur in the subfamily Lambeosaurinae. It belongs to the tribe Parasaurolophini, which gets its name from this dinosaur. Parasaurolophus originally lived during the Late Cretaceous period from 76.5 to 73 million years ago and inhabited western North America; at the time, that region was a subcontinent called Laramidia. The genus name Parasaurolophus means “near (or “similar to”) Saurolophus,” likening its appearance to a smaller genus of hadrosaur. The name of Saurolophus itself means “crested reptile,” so the name of Parasaurolophus can be translated as “near crested reptile.” There are three species known. The best known, Parasaurolophus walkeri, is identifiable by its mostly straight, slightly curved crest. Its species name honors Sir Byron Edmund Walker, Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Royal Ontario Museum. The second species, Parasaurolophus tubicen, has a more complex internal structure to its crest, and the crest itself is straighter and longer; this species is larger in size, and has a species name meaning “trumpeter” in reference to the calls it would have made. The third and final species, Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus, has a species name meaning “shortened-crested,” in reference to its comparably short, rounded crest. This third species is overall the smallest Parasaurolophus.

The first remains of Parasaurolophus walkeri, a skull and partial skeleton, were found in 1920 near Sand Creek in the Red Deer River of Alberta. This area is now a part of the Dinosaur Park Formation and dates to the Campanian epoch of the Cretaceous period. Researchers from the University of Toronto discovered the skeleton, which was missing most of its tail and the legs below the knees. In 1922, paleontologist William Parks named the genus and species. Few other remains of this animal have been found in Alberta, where it appears to have been rare.

Other remains were found in 1921 by Charles H. Sternberg in the Kirtland Formation of New Mexico; these rocks are about a million years more recent than those of the Dinosaur Park Formation. The remains consisted of a partial skull; it was sent to Uppsala, Sweden where, in 1931, paleontologist Carl Wiman named the second species Parasaurolophus tubicen. Two more fossils of this species have been found, all within the De-Na-Zin Member of the Kirtland Formation.

The final species, Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus, was discovered in New Mexico by John Ostrom in 1961. The fossil may have originated from the Kirtland Formation, though roughly a million years before P. tubicen would have inhabited the area, or from the underlying Fruitland Formation. More remains of this species were discovered in the Kaiparowits Formation of Utah. This smaller species was, because of its reduced crest size, thought to be a female or a juvenile of one of the other two Parasaurolophus species, but paleontologists by and large believe it to be its own species.

The Asian species Charonosaurus jiayensis is very similar to Parasaurolophus; a 2014 study suggested that it might actually be a fourth species of Parasaurolophus. In the Jurassic World: Evolution games, ancient DNA belonging to Parasaurolophus found in the Nemegt Formation of Mongolia can be used to clone the species, suggesting that at least in this canon they are genetically close enough to be compatible. Though fossils from both the Dinosaur Park and Kirtland Formations can be recovered, only animals that resemble Parasaurolophus walkeri can be bred in the game.

International Genetic Technologies has resurrected Parasaurolophus walkeri using ancient DNA recovered from Campanian amber samples. It was one of the first species to be cloned on Isla Sorna in the mid-to-late 1980s. As of June 11, 1993, InGen had created up to Version 3.01 of this species. Sometime around 2014, Parasaurolophus tubicen was also bred, though it has not been seen since and may be extinct. Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus is present in the Jurassic World traveling exhibition, though it has not been confirmed to have been cloned in the film canon proper. A genetic variant of P. walkeri with bioluminescent traits is sometimes called Parasaurolophus “lux“. It would be more properly called Parasaurolophus walkeri var. lux, but while taxonomically correct, it is more cumbersome.

Description

This is among the larger hadrosaurs, with P. walkeri reaching lengths of 24.6 to 31 feet (7.5 to 9.5 meters) and heights of 9.8 to 13.1 feet (3 to 4 meters) when standing upright. When on all fours, its height is closer to nine feet (2.7 meters). The larger P. tubicen reaches lengths of forty feet. The average weight of this animal ranges between 1.3 and 2.8 U.S. tons (1,179 and 2,585 kilograms). However, at least one exceptionally heavy adult P. walkeri was measured at 3,560 kilograms (3.9 U.S. tons) in 2018, despite only being a little larger than average.

A facultative quadruped, parasaurs are able to walk on two or four limbs as the situation requires. In general, they forage on all fours, but rear onto two legs when running. It has powerful legs and can run at a decent speed; this, along with social behavior, is its chief defense against predators. The feet have three hoof-like toes each, built for gripping the earth while running, while the hands have five digits. On the hands, four of the fingers are less distinct and bear only small claws. The fifth digit is the most distinct of the fingers. In the fossil ancestors of this animal, the four main digits were even less defined, fusing together into a single hoof-shaped hand while the fifth finger remained free and flexible. The forelimbs are short for hadrosaurs, though the upper arm is heavily built. Its pelvic bones and shoulder blades are also robust. Parasaurolophus is built for life on solid ground, rather than being semi-aquatic as scientists once assumed; it is a decent, but not excellent, swimmer, capable of holding its breath for short periods at a time and swimming in calm water while fully submerged. This dinosaur avoids strong currents and rough waters. It can jump from a bipedal stance, but not particularly high.

The skull of the parasaur is its most distinctive feature, easily standing out among other dinosaurs for its elongated and curved cranial crest. This structure is made up of a combination of the premaxilla and nasal bones, and contains hollow tubes. Each nostril connects to such a tube, which extends to the back of the crest before reversing direction and continuing down into the skull. These tubes are simplest in P. walkeri and most complex in P. tubicen, while the smaller P. cyrtocristatus has intermediate complexity in the tubes of its smaller, rounded crest. The skull of an InGen parasaur can reach five feet and three inches to six feet and seven inches long (1.6 to 2 meters) depending on the species. In P. tubicen, the crest is longer and straighter. The crest of this animal was suggested by paleontologists to function as a snorkel for breathing while underwater or as a weapon for intraspecific combat. Both of these hypotheses were rejected; the crest does not have a hole to be used as a snorkel, nor is it dense enough to be used in combat. Instead, it serves a social function, being used both as a visual display as well as an amplification chamber for the animal’s calls. The crest may also be used for thermoregulation, even facilitating the movement of cooler air to the brain.

The mouth of this animal is sheathed in a keratinous beak-like structure, which is toothless. Within the cheeks, it contains many small, densely-packed teeth; it is capable of chewing its food, making its digestion much more efficient. The tongue is small and rounded. Its eyes are somewhat large and round, with dark irises, yellow or orange sclerae, round birdlike pupils, and tapeta lucida which help it see in dark conditions and make its eyes look reflective. This dinosaur has good visual and auditory senses, befitting a creature that communicates extensively with display structures and complex vocalizations.

From the front, this animal strikes a relatively narrow profile, suitable for navigating between trees and dense foliage. It is not as thin as its relative Corythosaurus, but also not as thick as Edmontosaurus. Like many of the lambeosaurines, it has high neural spines, tallest over the hips; these create a distinct visible ridge down its back. The tail is not long, but somewhat deep, and overall not particularly remarkable.

This dinosaur has skin with tubercle-shaped scales. The base color is usually earthy green or brown, but is highly variable, ranging from a dull gray-green through bright yellow and orange. Most P. walkeri show lateral stripes down either flank, originating around the sides of the head and extending to the hips or tail. These stripes are often darker than the rest of the body and border a lighter stripe in between. Some bear black-rimmed white stripes, while others have rusted red or earthy brown stripes. The underbelly is usually lighter in color, demonstrating countershading. Horizontal stripes may occur on the legs, adding gray or black color to the outer thighs. The ridge of the parasaur’s back is usually darker, similar to the stripes on its body; this is not universal, with some parasaurs lacking alternate color on their ridges. On the neck and crest, parasaurs may demonstrate a bright red color, though the bulk of the crest is usually darker. Crests vary in shading, with some featuring dark blue, dark purple, gray, or solid black; the upper snout and beak are typically the same color as the crest. The brightness of the body color may vary throughout the parasaur’s life, possibly due to hormonal changes.

Some parasaurs bred for Jurassic World feature bioluminescence, which was present on the dorsal side of the cranial crest as well as the lateral stripes. The colors exhibited are either pinkish or yellow-orange, with the two variants being mutually exclusive. These, as discussed above, are sometimes referred to as Parasaurolophus lux, but are anatomically indistinguishable from P. walkeri other than their bioluminescence, so they should instead be considered a distinct genetic variant rather than another species.

New color variants of P. walkeri began to appear in North America during the early 2020s, possibly due to natural genetic drift, but more likely because of illegal breeding and genetic modification. Many of these still possess a basically beige or gray-green base color, but have distinct vertical stripes which are usually lighter than the rest of the body. There are two common strains aside from the original InGen animals: one which is chocolate-brown with a darker head crest and crisp whitish vertical striping, and one which is a lighter greenish-brown with teal stripes on the back and crest, teal streaks running down from its eyes, and white markings on its lower legs.

In Jurassic World, P. tubicen was bred, though it is unclear if any had reached adulthood by the time the park closed. This species has some anatomical differences from P. walkeri, but its most striking difference is its color. It is usually a beige or tan color with heavy dirt-brown patterning, featuring stripes, splotches, and spots; the brown pattern becomes denser higher on the animal’s flanks and back until it becomes almost solid. The ridge is banded in brown and beige, as are the limbs. The head of this breed of parasaur features mint green striping on the upper face and crest, with the stripes running horizontally from the snout to the crest tip; the brown color appears in between the green stripes. The beak is a lighter tan color. The smallest species, P. cyrtocristatus, has only appeared in Jurassic World: The Exhibition and appears to have coloration not too dissimilar to P. walkeri.

It is unknown if any of the different species or genetic variants interbreed, and if so, what the hybrid offspring look like.

Growth

When this animal hatches, its crest is lower and hemispherical. It grows out into its adult shape as the animal begins to mature, with small juveniles having roughly the proportions of the adult. A juvenile can also be told apart by its proportionally larger skull compared to its body, as is the case in many animals. Fossil evidence has suggested that parasaurs reach adult size in about a year, much faster than other hadrosaurs, and begin developing their crests at an earlier age than their relatives. This is in line with what has been observed in InGen specimens; the crest becomes longer and tube-like while the animal is still rather small.

The overall lifespan of a Parasaurolophus is unclear, but fossils suggest that hadrosaurs in general lived for one or two decades in the wild. De-extinct parasaurs seem to be fairly similar to their ancestors in terms of ontogeny, so it is likely that these resurrected versions also live for between ten and twenty years, with captive specimens probably living longer than those in the wild. By June 2016, at least one InGen parasaur had entered senescence and was unable to care for itself without the help of a herd; while its age was unconfirmed, this was thirty years after the first known successful de-extinction. This helps place a minimum age at which Parasaurolophus becomes elderly.

Sexual Dimorphism

Male and female P. walkeri can be told apart by comparing their coloration. Males achieve brighter colors than their female counterparts, similar to many modern birds. However, sexing this animal is not always easy, because it exhibits high levels of individualism. A male parasaur with gray-green color, for example, cannot be as bright as a female with yellow or orange color. Identifying the sexes of a parasaur by color alone can only be accomplished by comparing individuals that have the same color scheme. Sexual dimorphism in P. tubicen is so far unknown, but probably similar, with males having more vibrant display colors.

In concept art for the original trilogy, animals with shorter and rounder crests were depicted as females. This was not implemented into the films, and it is now known that these animals are in fact a distinct species, Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus, rather than the female of Parasaurolophus walkeri.

At the moment, it is unknown if the color variants in lux individuals are representative of sexual dimorphism. If so, the more vibrant pinkish colors are probably the males, while the less vivid yellow-orange hues belong to females.

Habitat

Preferred Habitat

Parasaurs inhabit forested areas near fresh water, where their food sources exist in abundance. They can tilt their heads back to retract the crest downward, making it easier to move through dense foliage. However, their hoof-like toes give them good purchase on most types of solid terrain, granting them excellent adaptability. These dinosaurs can live comfortably on grasslands and other plains regions, in semi-arid climates, and even in wetlands. Their ability to chew food allows them to feed on many different kinds of plants, which is part of the reason they are so adaptable. It is not adapted to a semi-aquatic lifestyle, though it prefers to keep near bodies of fresh water such as lakes and rivers.

Fossil evidence suggests that Parasaurolophus once inhabited coastal floodplains, riverbanks, and upland conifer forests, and lived during a time when temperatures were warmer and the wet and dry seasons were more extreme. In the modern day, it can tolerate a range of temperatures from tropical to quite cold. However, the temperature extremes of modern seasons are much unlike those of the Cretaceous, making seasonality an obstacle to this dinosaur’s survival in the wild.

Muertes Archipelago

InGen originally bred Parasaurolophus on Isla Sorna, most likely in the Embryonics building. The date at which they were first cloned is unknown, but the earliest possible date is 1986. As they neared maturity, InGen would determine whether they were suitable for Jurassic Park; the animals that were deemed worthy were shipped to Isla Nublar. At least fifteen female parasaurs were chosen for this purpose. When Isla Sorna was last surveyed in 1993, there were thirteen animals left; they were able to roam the island freely after Hurricane Clarissa forced InGen to evacuate completely two years later. The population may have declined due to the release of predators; the carcass of an 18-foot subadult may have been found in the West Pacific by a Japanese fishing vessel in 1997, based on deleted concepts from the script of The Lost World: Jurassic Park. However, the animals reproduced quickly, replacing members of their species that had died off and beginning to grow the population. While they are decent swimmers, there is currently no evidence that they established on other islands of the Muertes Archipelago.

Parasaurs were known from a few locations on Isla Sorna in the years between 1997 and 2004. The island’s northeastern game trail was known to host a herd, with between ten and seventeen adults being sighted in 1997. One of the males was captured by the InGen Harvester expedition on May 28, but was released by animal rights activists that night. He was released into the forest where the hunters had set up camp; it is not known if the parasaur migrated back to the game trail or found a new territory. The carcass of a subadult was seen in the tyrannosaur nest, located some distance to the south and farther inland, suggesting that parasaurs may live near here. Another carcass, also a subadult, was seen in the central part of the island near the Field of Nightmares and the Workers’ Village, confirming a parasaur presence near that region as well. All of the live parasaurs seen in 1997 were of the brown-skinned variety, though the decay on the carcasses made proper identification of the skin color impossible.

The parasaur population had exploded by 2001, with at least two distinct herds being sighted between July 18 and 19. The southwestern grasslands housed a herd of fifty-five animals, including fifty-one adults and four subadults. A carcass of a subadult was seen near the airstrip, likely having belonged to this population. Somewhat to the east, in a grassland near the Embryonics, Administration, and Laboratories Compound, a herd of at least thirty-one animals was seen, one of which was a subadult. A further three adults were seen on the eastern bank of the central channel. All the individuals in the western part of the island were gray-green or beige in color, unlike the earthy brown animals seen in the northeast. The junior novel Prey describes a green-colored individual living near Mount Hood as of December 31, 2001.

As of 2001, there were around eighty-nine Parasaurolophus living in western Isla Sorna, assuming that the two herds seen in the grasslands were unrelated. If the western population does not overlap with the eastern one, there may have been as many as 109 parasaurs on Isla Sorna between 1997 and 2001, an astounding increase from the thirteen animals that lived there in 1993. Along with natural reproduction, the parasaur population may have been bolstered by illegal cloning activity perpetrated by InGen between late 1998 and mid-1999; InGen’s new owner, Simon Masrani, visited Isla Sorna in 1999 and encountered a baby Parasaurolophus, indicating a recent breeding season.

Beginning in 2004, scientists noted an alarming decrease in the population of animals on Isla Sorna. The island’s small size and enormous population caused a trophic cascade as competition for food became intense and new predators unbalanced the ecosystem. Many of the parasaurs may have starved to death or died while competing with other, more formidable animals. In 2004, InGen began the process of relocating Isla Sorna’s animals to Isla Nublar, both for their own well-being and to stock Jurassic World. Masrani Global officials claimed that no live de-extinct animals inhabited Isla Sorna from that point onward, but poaching vessels were caught near the island as late as 2017, sometimes with live animals on board. The Department of Prehistoric Wildlife acknowledged the likelihood of animals still living there, though even today public access is not allowed and details have not been shared by authorities.

Jurassic Park: San Diego

While this was among the dinosaurs intended for display in Jurassic Park: San Diego, none ever made it to site. The park was shuttered in favor of the Isla Nublar locale in the 1980s before any animals were delivered. In the late 1990s, it made a brief revival, with at least one captured from Isla Sorna, but again, none made it to the mainland. After the events of 1997, the park was permanently decommissioned having never seen a single parasaur.

Isla Nublar

Possibly as early as 1988, InGen introduced Parasaurolophus to habitats on Isla Nublar where they were to be among the animals featured in Jurassic Park. This hadrosaur shared the herbivore paddocks with the sauropod Brachiosaurus. The primary herbivore paddock was located more to the north, featuring grassland in the west and dense forest to the east. It was bordered to the north by the secondary Dilophosaurus paddock, and to the east by the Tyrannosaurus and Velociraptor paddocks. To the southeast was the Gallimimus paddock. The animals were kept separate by twenty-four-foot electric fencing, and from the main tour road by a moat. In the southern herbivore paddock, grassland and sparse forest surrounded the Watering Hole, a large pond where the animals could bathe and drink. Its western border was defined by the Park’s perimeter fence, while the Jungle River marked its southern extent and the east and north were delineated by a service road. On the other side of the service road and a five-foot electric fence to the north was an empty paddock area eventually destined for Proceratosaurus. The road to the east simply separated it from an undeveloped area of land.

As of June 11, 1993, there were at least eight adult female and two juvenile female parasaurs present in the southern herbivore paddock; they were seen at the Watering Hole during the endorsement tour. These parasaurs could be identified by their green and blue color. In addition, there were four adult female parasaurs kept at Dr. Laura Sorkin‘s research paddock in the far northwestern region of the island, near Mount Sibo. Although they were explicitly said to be female, they possessed brighter orange and yellow colors with white stripes. One of these could be identified by a broken left toe, which made it exceptionally cautious. According to InGen documentation, there were fifteen parasaurs on the island after the 1993 incident, meaning that there was at least one more than those seen by the groups involved with those events. The footage for the Tour The Island site’s Compsognathus video implies that at least one parasaur on the island died prior to the 1993 incident.

During the 1993 incident on Isla Nublar, Dr. Sorkin’s parasaurs were released from their paddock to allow them to survive until she could return to the island. The injured parasaur was hunted down and killed by a Velociraptor after being released on June 12; the others scattered from the paddock area. One was seen to the southwest of the paddock area. Over the course of the next year, the population was whittled down; the 1994 cleanup operation reported as of October 5 that, due to predation from Tyrannosaurus, only nine parasaurs remained.

When Isla Nublar was reclaimed in early 2002, the parasaur population was saved from further decline as InGen Security restrained the tyrannosaur in April and restricted the movements of other carnivores on the island. Between then and 2004, some parasaurs may have been shipped back and forth between Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna as InGen prepared for Jurassic World; as of August 2004, there were more than a dozen parasaurs living on Isla Nublar, all of which resided in the central valley. The parasaurs generally remained in the eastern half of the valley, opposite the Triceratops herd. Throughout 2004, any surviving parasaurs on Isla Sorna were rounded up by InGen and brought to Isla Nublar, where they stayed a short while in a quarantine pen before being introduced to the valley. Breeding resumed; along with the old stock, InGen bred Parasaurolophus tubicen sometime by 2014. Since its image on the Jurassic World website was an illustration rather than a 3D render, it is believed that none of these new parasaurs had reached maturity by late 2015. None have ever been seen, so it is possible that they have died out. While breeding occurred in the park between 2004 and 2015, young parasaurs would be bred in the Hammond Creation Laboratory before spending their juvenile stage in the Gentle Giants Petting Zoo.

The central valley was gradually developed into three overlapping attractions: Triceratops Territory in the west, the Gyrosphere attraction in the south, and Gallimimus Valley in the east. Parasaurs were noted to chiefly inhabit the latter, but their actual range permitted them to venture across Sectors 4 and 6 of the park. As of December 22, 2015, parasaurs could be seen as far east as the Jungle River and as far west as Gyrosphere Valley. Two adults of the orange-skinned variety were seen on the river’s eastern bank, while an additional nineteen were seen in the valley. At least one juvenile was present in the Gentle Giants Petting Zoo at that time. In the cave section of the Cretaceous Cruise‘s River Adventure, Parasaurolophus lux could be seen; only four adults were actually observed on December 22, but at later dates, around forty were witnessed in the wild, so the cave’s population was probably much larger than initially seen.

Additionally, some parasaurs were found in the island’s north. At least fourteen adults of varying brown, yellow, and gray color schemes lived in Herd M near Camp Cretaceous‘s Observation Tower, spending their days in the grazing areas and their nights in the nighttime paddocks. This was the first confirmed parasaur herd to integrate multiple color schemes. On December 22, 2015, one parasaur was being held in the Sector 4 veterinary station for an undisclosed medical condition.

After the 2015 Jurassic World incident, the parasaurs were free to roam across the entire island rather than just the central valley. New predators abounded on the island, devastating the parasaur population. Some moved southward, but this meant that they would enter tyrannosaur territory; one adult was preyed upon on December 23, the first day after the incident, in the forest near the Innovation Center. Another was seen in a river somewhat near the golf course. Others in the south took advantage of the maintenance tunnels for shelter. Two adults entered the Ferry Landing harbor building in March 2016, but since there was no vegetation here, they would still have to emerge to feed. The one held in the veterinary station in Sector 4 was abandoned during the evacuation, but was fortunately released from its cage on December 24. It probably rejoined the herds of the valley. Many remained in the north; three adults, most likely from Herd M, were seen at a riverbed in March.

Between March and June, the population was decimated by Scorpios rex activity. At least two parasaurs were killed near Camp Cretaceous in June, and another was killed near the raptor paddock. The P. lux population was hit the hardest; at least three were killed in a single attack one night after the herd was driven out of the caves. They had fled nearly all the way across the island from east to west; very few P. lux were seen after this attack, as they were probably easy targets for other predator species. Herds of normal parasaurs survived, and were seen midway through 2016. One of these herds included the oldest confirmed surviving parasaur, though that individual has not been seen since.

Most of the population migrated northward throughout 2017 due to geomagnetic activity centered around Mount Sibo. The parasaurs primarily lived in the forested foothills of the volcanic mountain. As volcanic activity increased, the animals were threatened by inhalation of hydrogen fluoride, as well as pulmonary exposure to volcanic ash. According to the Dinosaur Protection Group, Parasaurolophus was one of the island’s most threatened species as of 2018. Parasaurolophus lux would likely have become extinct; even if they avoided becoming poisoned by the toxic algal bloom in the river, they would have been easy targets for predators since they lacked the ability to hide.

As of June 23, 2018, just a single wild parasaur was seen on the island. It was driven westward by the eruption of Mount Sibo, taking the plunge over the northwestern cliffs into the Pacific Ocean; it was seen attempting to climb onto a rock afterward, but was unable to climb on. While other parasaurs lived in the area, this was the last one seen in the wild. It was struck by debris and wounded, making it unlikely this animal survived the swim back to shore. A parasaur was seen being loaded onto the S.S. Arcadia by mercenaries led by Ken Wheatley as the eruption proceeded, and was removed from the island along with at least three others of its kind. With only five known specimens still alive just before the eruption, this hadrosaur was well on its way to extinction already. All of the survivors belong to the orange-skinned variety.

The last parasaur logged into the Arcadia‘s manifest was entered at 14:02, cosigned by Lee Bilborough, and held in Container #32-1023-4461 (Cargo #53540). This animal was weighed at 3,560 kilograms, making it the heaviest known member of its species by a considerable margin. It may be a result of artificial hybridization or natural interbreeding between P. walkeri and P. tubicen, to attain such a size.

Mantah Corp Island

Numerous de-extinct species were bred in the Mantah Corp Island facility during the 2000s and 2010s, but so far, Parasaurolophus has not been confirmed among them. Since the company president mainly wanted to secure dinosaurs capable of violent combat, parasaurs were probably a low-priority target.

Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary

During the late 2010s and early 2020s, various dinosaurs including Parasaurolophus were captured by Biosyn Genetics with permission of several national governments, often rescued from the black market or captured in the wild. They were transported to secure facilities including the largest one, the Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary, for housing and research. Parasaurs of both InGen and new bloodlines are present there and inhabit the lakeside forests of Biosyn Valley alongside other herbivorous species. As of 2022, both adults and adolescents were housed in the sanctuary. It is unknown whether they represent a breeding population. Between three and nine adults were present in the sanctuary as of late 2022.

In the winter of 2022, a human-caused wildfire damaged the valley, forcing Biosyn to temporarily move the dinosaurs into emergency containment. After this incident, the United Nations took over supervision of the facility.

Black market

Poaching was common around the Muertes Archipelago and Isla Nublar between 1997 and 2018, though the species involved with these illegal ventures have not been fully documented. The first confirmed case of Parasaurolophus being specifically poached was in June 2018, with an operation orchestrated by Eli Mills and headed by Ken Wheatley. A small number of Parasaurolophus walkeri were captured from Isla Nublar and transported via the S.S. Arcadia to the Lockwood estate just outside Orick, California to be sold on the black market. Four adults were confirmed to be involved with this incident, but none were successfully sold, as the auction was disrupted by animal rights activists.

Since then, the animal spread into the wild and became accessible to anyone with the means to catch them. Organizations such as the Department of Prehistoric Wildlife and companies such as Biosyn Genetics have been involved with tracking the animals’ locations and bringing them to safe sanctuary, but some have instead been caught by private parties and illegally held in captivity. For example, a herd of parasaurs in the Sierra Nevada Mountains was regularly poached by criminals including Rainn Delacourt, prompting efforts to try and remove the animals to safe havens managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the winter of 2022. Delacourt was eventually apprehended, dying during an escape attempt. However, the number of animal traffickers who are never caught is far greater. In recent years, genetically-distinct lineages of P. walkeri have been spotted in the wild, suggesting that intentional genetic modification is occurring. The DPW confirmed captive breeding by private citizens; in early 2022, the DPW and Metropolitan Police broke up a breeding ring in London, England which included specimens of Parasaurolophus. Three adults fled into Finsbury Park when the confrontation occurred, and authorities locked down the street in order to contain them.

Genetic material from this species has also entered the black market, enabling wealthy people to breed the animal without capturing live specimens. The Amber Clave market in Malta is believed to be one of the world’s biggest hubs for this illegal activity, and unfortunately, parasaurs often meet an unpleasant fate here. Their bones are believed by some to have medicinal properties, so the animals are killed to have their bones ground into powder. Some parasaurs held illegally in captivity do have happier endings. On May 16, 2022, agents from the Department of Prehistoric Wildlife responded to a call from local authorities in Arizona regarding an attempt to smuggle an adult parasaur out of the state. The animal was found to be in good health and was relocated to a paleo-sanctuary, possibly Biosyn Valley. That autumn, the DPW was disbanded after a major animal trafficking scandal was uncovered; a warehouse in Louisiana and associated harbor facility were being used to ship dinosaurs including Parasaurolophus overseas. While one of these animals at the harbor escaped captivity and fled into the wild, the fates of the others remains unknown; many of the smuggled animals have disappeared into the black market. Some are still being found by activists in various corporate-owned facilities, such as farms and warehouses, throughout the United States.

Wild populations

North America

The first known species of Parasaurolophus to evolve was P. cyrtocristatus, which existed in North America around seventy-six million years ago. This species lived on the western side of the Western Interior Seaway, on the subcontinent of Laramidia. It was eventually replaced by the larger P. tubicen, found farther south. The final species to evolve was probably P. walkeri, though this was the first species that would be discovered by paleontologists. Parasaurolophus was likely brought to extinction by changes in its environment about three or four million years after it first evolved. However, specimens of its DNA were recovered by scientists in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, and at least two species (P. walkeri and P. tubicen) were brought back to life through genetic engineering.

At least four adult parasaurs were transported to North America on June 24, 2018 and released by animal rights activists from the black market. They seem to have been breeding pairs, as their populations rapidly increased. Illegal captive breeding and release likely bolstered their numbers too. After fleeing into the surrounding forest, the parasaurs have gone on to roam the Pacific Northwest. At least one animal may have been relocated intentionally; a film surfaced in 2019 showing a parasaur drinking from a river someplace in the United States (the footage is originally from Beaver Lake, Arkansas, but the location it is meant to represent in canon has not been revealed). The National Park Service discovered a single female in Yosemite National Park in the summer of 2020, keeping the creature safely away from human interference in a remote part of the park. It was relocated to Oracle State Park in Arizona that winter. By early 2022, this hadrosaur had been reported from several U.S. states in the Rocky Mountains area including Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. Others were tracked by the CIA’s dinosaur tracking operations farther north; herds are known up and down the Saskatchewan River as well as farther toward the Arctic in places like Great Slave Lake and the Yukon River. Some were also reported in Alaska’s Neacola Mountains. The CIA has even reported a population in eastern Greenland; how they survive there during the frigid winter is unknown, and the population has probably disappeared in more recent years.

Dinosaur rights activist Darius Bowman has documented bioluminescence re-emerging in Western American Parasaurolophus populations, possibly due to interbreeding between the lux variant and normal parasaurs prior to the former’s presumed extinction. These bioluminescent specimens lived in a herd in eastern Colorado as of September 2022, in the foothills of the Front Range.

The DPW reported a sorority of parasaurs living in Pipestone River Provincial Park, located in Ontario, which had recently been joined by a male in May 2022. In June, a parasaur was spotted trumpeting for its herd in Panguitch Lake Resort in Utah. A large herd was present in the Sierra Nevada mountain range in late 2022, with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service working to capture and relocate the animals. Some of these animals had been targeted by poachers including Rainn Delacourt, so relocating the hadrosaurs was a priority. Jurassic World Evolution 2 depicts a small herd of Parasaurolophus living in the Cascades of Oregon; it is uncertain if they migrated there on their own or were brought there by humans. An abandoned dinosaur poacher camp is located near their territory. Yosemite National Park remains a major habitat for them in this game.

Although they are numerous, widespread, and apparently fertile, Parasaurolophus is still not perfectly adapted to the modern age. For one, their native Cretaceous period was far less seasonal than the modern world, thanks to major differences in ocean current circulation. Oxygen content was higher, and of course there are anthropogenic pollutants in the environment today which no animal in the Mesozoic would have ever endured. Along with differences in food sources and modern-day diseases, all de-extinct animals face serious challenges to their survival. During the mid-2020s, a population shift was noticed; to avoid some environmental stressors, many of the dinosaurs that remained alive were migrating toward environments similar to the ones that their ancestors experienced millions of years ago. Parasaurolophus in North America have now largely abandoned the northern part of their range, favoring warmer, wetter conditions to the south. Central America and its lush forests present an ideal habitat for this herbivore, though to get there, specimens north of the United States-Mexico border must run a gauntlet of desert, scrubland, and infrastructure spanning for hundreds or even thousands of miles depending on exactly where they come from. Parasaurs taking coastal routes probably have better luck than inland in terms of finding food along the journey, but there are also more cities along the coasts, which present a hazard.

South America

While many parasaurs still inhabit North America, they have been reported on other continents. The CIA has tracked a population which was established in the Pantanal in Brazil, the world’s largest wetland, as of 2021. Another population is known from the central Amazon Rainforest, near the Amazon River’s widest point. This suggests that parasaurs are common within the tropical forests of South America but likely evade detection by living in regions not well-monitored by global authorities. Their South American population may therefore be quite larger than reported.

This part of the world is very remote, with human populations being small and isolated. Dinosaurs such as Parasaurolophus flourish in such environments, where human interference is less likely and there is plenty of food to go around. Tropical areas like this are now host to the majority of wild dinosaurs.

Africa

Africa hosts a few parasaur populations. Some have been documented in northeastern forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, their range overlapping with that of the okapi. Others have been tracked by the CIA in the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, the Erg Aoukar of Mauritania, and along the White Nile in South Sudan. A more isolated population is known from the Ankaratra volcanic mountain range in central Madagascar. Most of the African populations live in warm climates that their species favors, so these parasaurs may still be found there, living in relatively isolated areas where human interference is less likely.

Europe

In Europe, they were being tracked near the source of the River Júcar in the Montes Universales of Spain as of 2021, as well as the Ostrobothnian Plain of Finland. While the Spanish population enjoys an isolated habitat with amenable climate and may still be present there, the Finnish population would be exposed to uncomfortably cold winters. If they have survived this, they have likely migrated south, away from the subpolar regions, in search of somewhere warmer.

Asia

Charonosaurus, a closely-related hadrosaur from central Asia, has been suggested to be a species of Parasaurolophus rather than its own genus; if this suggestion is correct, then Parasaurolophus migrated to Asia from North America and persisted until the very end of the Cretaceous period. At that point, a tremendous mass extinction event claimed the lives of all members of its species.

Quite a few populations are known from Asia, with all of southern Russia within their 2021 range; the CIA has mapped their populations near the Volga River, the Ural Mountains (where they appear densest), the West Siberian Plain, the Lena River, the Chersky Range, and the Kamchatka Peninsula. The northernmost parasaurs are found at the mouth of the Lena River in Siberia, where they must contend with frigid temperatures.

Some are known along the Syr Darya river in central Kazakhstan. To the south they are known from China’s Yellow River, India’s Mahanadi River, and the hyper-arid Rub’ al Khali of Saudi Arabia. This represents the most extreme environment parasaurs are known to inhabit; they live in the northwestern desert outskirts, where water is a little more available but still mostly present in the form of temporary lakes resulting from monsoons. Parasaurolophus can also be found as far away as Penang Island in Malaysia; a small herd of around three animals, two adults and a subadult, were photographed by tourists at the Pantai Pasir Panjang beach in 2022.

Like in other parts of the world, Asian parasaurs have shifted their populations over time. Cold climates are not especially welcoming to them, as their native Cretaceous was a warm world with stable temperatures. Seasons were less extreme than in the modern day. Because of the differences between prehistoric and modern environments, parasaurs and other de-extinct life have sought out specific habitats that best suit their needs. Today’s parasaurs are generally found in subtropical and tropical regions, meaning that they are most numerous in southern parts of Asia. The widespread Siberian populations of the early 2020s have likely declined in later parts of the decade, and may now have vanished. The fates of the remote Arabian populations are unknown, but probably highly dependent on whether or not they could locate a reliable water source.

Oceania

The CIA has tracked a population in the northern parts of the Great Dividing Range in Australia as of 2021. Whether they remain there today is not known; while there are plenty of remote areas in this region where Parasaurolophus could survive, the Great Dividing Range also experiences noticeable seasonal temperature shifts and produces a rain shadow, making this area markedly different from what these dinosaurs evolved to withstand.

Behavior and Ecology

Activity Patterns

Paleontological research and behavioral evidence in the modern day both demonstrate that this is a diurnal animal, adapted to daytime activity and sleeping at night. Its large eyes allow it to see relatively well in shady conditions, but it is not believed to be active at night unless disturbed. All observations of parasaurs in the wild have been during daytime and evening, except for incidents where the animal was unnaturally disturbed at night. Around midday, Parasaurolophus forages and bathes, and it rests during the heat of the day. It is more likely to spend its evening socializing, reaffirming the social bonds that protect them from danger.

Though it is diurnal, it may wake shortly before first light to eat and drink. In the evenings, it often congregates around water sources not just to drink, but to socialize. This behavior is especially noticeable in the lux variant, whose bioluminescence becomes visible as the sunlight wanes.

Diet and Feeding Behavior

Parasaurs are efficient herbivores, capable of chewing their food with dental batteries consisting of hundreds of small, tightly-packed teeth. They chiefly feed low to the ground, though they are able to rear up onto their hind legs and reach food higher up in trees as well. Because they can chew, parasaurs can eat virtually any kind of plant they find; they are typically seen eating ferns, shrubs, and other ground plants. Since they inhabit coniferous forests, they may feed on the cones of trees such as the redwood as well as other fruits, but they have also been introduced to deciduous forests and lush tropical jungles with great success. The InGen IntraNet website lists its common food items as ferns, tree leaves, and aquatic mosses. Low-growing wetland plants were also documented in the diet of Dr. Laura Sorkin’s specimens. Those found in the wild today seem to be bulkier than those observed in the Gulf of Fernandez, suggesting the dietary options available to them elsewhere in the world are healthier.

Coprolite fossils uncovered in Utah and linked to hadrosaurs suggest that these animals, despite mainly being herbivorous, did eat crustaceans from time to time. The diet of Parasaurolophus may have included freshwater crabs; in the modern day it would have ease finding crustaceans such as crayfish in rivers and lakes. Eating shellfish would give a Parasaurolophus a boost of protein and minerals such as calcium, which an animal with so many teeth would need to have in its diet.

If a parasaur discovers food, it will use a hooting cry to summon its herd members. This is sometimes interpreted as an act of altruism, but it also ensures that the social bonds between members of the herd are reinforced, and ensures that feeding occurs as a group.

These animals are often seen grazing or browsing in large herds, typically in open fields or at the edges of forests. This makes it easier to spot approaching danger, so they are able to drop their meal and easily flee if trouble comes along. Parasaurs value their lives more than food, and so will abandon anything they are eating as to not be distracted or encumbered while fleeing a predator. If deprived of food for too long, their behavior patterns become more unruly, in comparison to their usual docile manner.

In the game Jurassic World: Evolution, the favored food of Parasaurolophus is palm leaves, though it also enjoys conifers, ginkgoes, and rotten wood. It cannot digest grasses, horsetails, and cycads; these are harmful to its health. Specimens in Jurassic World in 2015 were seen grazing on grass, suggesting that they will eat this plant even though it is unhealthy for them. The sequel Jurassic World: Evolution 2 portrays Parasaurolophus feeding on the nuts of seed plants.

Social Behavior

Like most hadrosaurs, the Parasaurolophus is a highly social creature forming herds that can become quite large (sometimes in excess of fifty animals in captivity). While it is of only average intelligence for a dinosaur, its social behaviors are advanced; parasaurs are sociable and playful, generally friendly creatures that strongly prefer to live in the company of others. Their social politics are surprisingly complex, with cliques forming based on coloration, particularly of the crest. Parasaurs are more likely to bond with other individuals with similar crest coloration, and in males, the vividness of an animal’s color is tied to its dominance in the herd. This is probably why parasaurs of similar coloration are often seen together, as less colorful animals seek one another out rather than remain alongside more impressive specimens. Dominance in females is based on resonance of voice, rather than coloration, according to the InGen IntraNet website, with lower frequencies being considered more authoritative. In the game Jurassic World: Evolution 2, parasaurs will sniff to identify each other using their superb sense of smell, and will rub up against their herd-mates as a show of affection.

The social herding behavior of Parasaurolophus is not just for comfort, but for safety. A lone animal, if targeted by a predator, would be easily killed. If it lives in a herd, though, it does not have to outrun its predator; it simply has to outrun the slowest member of its herd. Each individual parasaur’s chance of being killed is lower when in larger numbers, as the predators kill the weakest or unluckiest animals. This does not mean that parasaurs do not care for their own, however. As they forage for food or drink, at least one animal keeps a lookout for predators or other dangers; sometimes, a disabled parasaur will become watchman for its herd. Disabled animals have a greater motivation to notice approaching predators, as they are less able to defend themselves, so they are particularly alert and quick to notice danger. The watchman will often assume a tripod position, rearing onto its hind legs to give itself a better view. If it senses danger, it will emit a low groaning cry that signals caution to the others. The whole herd will flee as a single unit the instant danger is spotted. Juveniles will be sheltered in the middle of the herd for their safety. Even when only in pairs, parasaurs will take turns watching for danger while the other drinks or feeds.

Some parasaur actions, such as food signaling and watchman behavior, are interpreted as altruism by some scientists and laypeople (including Dr. Sorkin, who compared them to meerkats). However, it is argued by others that true altruism does not occur in nature, and that there are other reasons for the parasaurs’ behavior to have evolved this way. Signaling that food has been found summons other parasaurs, potential competitors, but also ensures that feeding occurs as a group so that if predators attack, each individual parasaur’s odds of survival is increased. Acting as watchman increases a parasaur’s value to the herd, and therefore that animal’s status. It also makes the watchman the one most likely to spot danger, and therefore increases its own individual chances of survival compared to its less alert fellows. However, lookout parasaurs have been observed waiting for their fellows to move away after hearing a danger call, only moving on once they are sure that the rest of the herd is safely moving out of the dangerous area. Elder care has also been documented in this species; younger animals will ensure the older ones keep up with the herd, and if predators are around, older and slower animals will be hidden until the threat has passed. Younger animals may rebuff or lure away a predator to protect their elders. These examples are closer to true altruism.

Competition within the herd is usually non-combative, since the parasaur has little in the way of weaponry save for its bulk. When two parasaurs do engage in combat, the challenger will make a groaning sound to start the fight. The combatants will make lunging motions and bellow at one another; if neither one backs down, the defending animal may initiate physical combat by shoving the challenger. Eventually, one of the animals will concede.

Reproduction

As with all dinosaurs, Parasaurolophus lays eggs and possesses a cloaca which houses its reproductive organs. The cloaca is located posterior to the hips, on the underside of the tail. Courtship involves visual and auditory displays, since these are the dinosaur’s main senses. Females herd together in sororities, and will respond to male suitors as a group. A male who makes his approach must communicate his intentions to the females in order to be allowed in. By vocalizing with a high-pitched sound, he clarifies that he means no harm, and then courtship can begin.

According to the InGen IntraNet website, courtship occurs along social lines, with equally dominant animals in the herd hierarchy mating with one another. Males with brighter crest and body coloration, and females with lower-frequency voices, are considered more dominant; herd members with equal status based on these criteria will pair up during mating. The parasaur mating call is a low-pitched, even-toned moan; upon hearing this call, a receptive parasaur will respond with the same sound and move toward the source. In a research experiment by Dr. Laura Sorkin and David Banks, female parasaurs were found to respond to recorded mating calls which had actually been produced by other females. This suggests that, like most modern bird groups, homosexual pair-bonding could be expected among parasaurs and likely other dinosaur species.

When mating groups are established, the parasaurs will quickly move on to the nesting phase. They locate suitable territory near bodies of fresh water where they will live during breeding. Most hadrosaur species nest communally, which means there are always plenty of adults looking over the nests and that the young are well-protected. A single parasaur on its own would be vulnerable to thieving predators, but any egg-eater would have to be wary with so many huge animals nesting in one place. The adults are fiercely defensive of their nesting territories.

Incubation of eggs in larger dinosaurs such as Parasaurolophus usually takes around six months to a year, and amorous behavior has been observed in May to mid-June. This suggests that courtship and mating take place during the late spring and early summer, which in Costa Rica would be the rainy season. Eggs probably hatch later in the year; depending on how long the incubation period lasts, they may hatch during the dry season, or at the beginning of the next rainy season.

Most hadrosaurs practice parental care, with the mother of the hatchlings providing food and protection. Juveniles are sometimes observed alongside the adults in herds; some were observed in herds in July 2001. Only a few subadults and younger animals could be seen, suggesting a higher mortality rate despite the animals’ large population increase. To protect the younger parasaurs, adults will surround them to keep the young ones on the inside of the herd, and keep a watchful eye out for predators at all times.

Fossil evidence suggests that parasaurs mature more rapidly than other hadrosaurids, reaching their adult proportions in a year or so. This may explain why juveniles are so rarely observed; those that survive become adults by the time the next breeding season occurs. Crests of juveniles quickly grow to the shapes of the adult crests, suggesting that juveniles are capable of vocalizing like the adults from a young age.

It is unknown if the different species can crossbreed, or if their hybrid offspring would be fertile or even healthy. Many bird species are capable of producing hybrid offspring but these often cannot survive or reproduce.

Communication

Among the most vocal of dinosaurs, Parasaurolophus has a sophisticated system of communicating with members of its own kind that surpasses that of other herbivores. The InGen IntraNet website describes it as a primitive language, on par with modern-day monkeys, a description that has also been applied to the much more intelligent Velociraptor.

Much of our understanding of parasaur communication comes from the research of Dr. Laura Sorkin and her assistant David Banks in early 1993. Three specific calls were studied and interpreted with full confidence: the food call, mating call, and warning call. The food call is an upswept hooting sound, used by a parasaur that has found a viable source of food to summon its herd. This ensures that feeding occurs as a group, keeping all the animals safe and together. The mating call, as described above, is a low-pitched moan, used in a call-and-response manner to initiate courtship. The warning call is a loud groan, emitted when a parasaur senses danger. When a warning call is emitted, it is not an instant cause for panic, and instead instructs the other parasaurs to begin moving away from the area before danger arrives. Louder and higher-pitched alarm calls are instead used when the animal is frightened; if these calls are made, the herd is likely to stampede.

If confronted with danger, such as during stampedes, parasaurs have been heard making loud trumpeting and bellowing sounds. The bellowing sounds in particular sound very similar to the noises made by agitated Stegosaurus and Triceratops, and are used under similar circumstances. Parasaurolophus uses these bellows when stampeding but also during dominance displays, suggesting that it is an intimidation cry rather than a sign of panic. When it uses these sounds while being hunted or otherwise threatened, they serve to warn other parasaurs as well as to try and intimidate threats. The volume of the call advertises the parasaur’s health and vitality, giving both predators and competitors reason to choose another target.

The Department of Prehistoric Wildlife studied parasaur social behavior as well and discovered a new social call that had not been previously documented. Males, when seeking out sororities where they may court females, will make distinct high-pitched cries on approach. They may make this sound before they are within visual range. It serves to alert the sorority to the male’s presence, and advise them that he is not threatening. When they hear his cries, the females will locate him and determine whether to accept him as a suitor.

Other vocalizations are not as well-studied, but have been observed nonetheless. The animals will make various hooting and snorting noises to communicate information to one another; small hoots are sometimes heard when a parasaur notices a new object or animal in its environment, in contrast to the huffing sound it makes when startled.

Parasaurs also engage in other forms of communication including visual displays. The crest is its most prominent feature, and is used to signal other members of its species; it is distinctly different in shape from the crests of other hadrosaurs such as Corythosaurus, enabling it to recognize its own kind. Males in particular use their coloration to communicate, establishing dominance hierarchies among one another and advertising their virility to females. Both body language and vocal sounds appear to be universal across parasaur populations, rather than varying from one social group to another.

Ecological Interactions

Not only is Parasaurolophus social, it commonly interacts with members of other species. It prefers the company of sauropods; parasaurs are seldom seen far from these huge herbivores’ feeding grounds. With such large neighbors around, they are more likely to be protected from danger, since only the largest of predators would dare confront a sauropod. The wary parasaurs have excellent senses, and therefore can assist the sauropods in detecting danger, making it a mutualistic form of symbiosis.

Parasaurs are also often sighted alongside other hadrosaurs, such as Corythosaurus. They have been seen living peacefully in integrated herds, relying on safety in even greater numbers than they would have alone. Vocalizations differ between species, but disparate genera appear able to recognize one another’s more important social cues such as warning signs. In fact, Parasaurolophus appears quite good at recognizing the warning signs given by numerous other animal species, and reacts accordingly. On the islands where they were originally bred, they have been documented tolerating or even seeking out the company of most other de-extinct herbivores. On the mainland, introduced parasaurs have been known to interact with modern animal life, often the mammalian megafauna of their particular region. Hoofed mammals are frequently seen as companions to parasaurs. Birds are frequently seen living in or near parasaur herds as well. The birds use these huge animals for protection, and probably feed on trampled plants or insects that are stirred up by the hadrosaurs’ movements. The small nonavian theropod Compsognathus can sometimes also be seen near parasaur herds taking advantage of their presence in similar ways.

Like all herbivores, the parasaur shapes its environment by eating it. Their grinding teeth and jaws adapted for chewing permit them to feed on most types of plants; some individuals in Jurassic World have even been observed grazing on grass, which dinosaurs are not actually evolved to eat. They tend to live in or near coniferous forests when left to their own devices, with pines and redwoods being common in their habitats; they may feed on the cones of these trees, as well as fruits and leaves of other plant species. Ferns constitute a large amount of their diet, as do other low-growing plants. Forests also help them avoid danger, since they can more easily hide, and larger carnivores have difficulty navigating through denser forests and jungles where parasaurs are quite comfortable. InGen was able to acclimate these animals to shallow cave environments on Isla Nublar, where they primarily fed on algae rather than plants. In the wild they tend not to live underground, despite the shelter this provides from predators, since there is very little to eat.

It has a few defenses against predators, such as its bulk, speed, and intimidating bellows. Not all enemies can be crushed, outmaneuvered, or frightened; for these persistent predators, parasaurs rely on numbers for protection. A predator will normally only take one parasaur to eat at a time, so in a larger herd, each parasaur has a greater chance of not being that unlucky individual. Confirmed predators include Tyrannosaurus and Velociraptor, though carcasses may be scavenged by small carnivores such as Compsognathus. Their predators play a role in parasaur evolution, since the parasaurs with traits that help them survive being preyed upon are the ones which will pass those traits on to the greatest number of offspring.

Along with its large predators, Parasaurolophus is impacted by disease and parasites. In the Cretaceous period, it was bitten by female mosquitoes which used its blood to nourish their eggs; it is unconfirmed whether modern mosquitoes also bite them. They are susceptible to bacterial infections leading to osteomyelitis, which Jurassic World’s paleoveterinarians observed affecting the intracranial bone. The most common cause of osteomyelitis is infection from the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, though other bacteria and even some fungi can cause it. If a parasaur suffered osteomyelitis in any of its cranial bones, the function of its crest could be impacted, leading to the animal becoming socially isolated; in the wild, this would be a death sentence, since it relies on numbers for long-term protection.

Agama bean

A species of legume found on Isla Sorna, the agama bean, is known to have served as a food source from the mid-1990s onward to parasaurs suffering from lysine deficiency. InGen had genetically modified their de-extinct animals to make them dependent upon lysine supplements provided in their food, but since all animals obtain lysine from their natural diets anyway, all the parasaurs had to do was simply eat more of the plant matter they needed. If lysine-deficient strains of parasaurs still live on Isla Sorna, they probably still rely on plants such as these.

Allosaurus

After the fall of Jurassic World, numerous predator species were allowed to roam Isla Nublar freely. Allosaurus was one of these, and it was often found in forested environments near where Parasaurolophus lived. Younger allosaurs often run down prey, while adults are typically ambush hunters, but both age groups could threaten at least Parasaurolophus walkeri; the bigger Parasaurolophus tubicen could likely hold its own a bit better, but appears to have been uncommon on the island and died out by 2018. By that time, most parasaurs were found living in the foothills of Mount Sibo, with Allosaurus often hunting in this area as well. However, there is no direct evidence of predation, nor have attacks by allosaurs on parasaurs been documented since the animals were introduced to the wider world. They have only been seen together when housed in captivity.

American cockroach

One of Isla Nublar’s insect species is the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana), a widespread animal in tropical environments. Like Parasaurolophus, it is not originally from Isla Nublar, but instead originated in northern Africa. It mostly feeds on detritus, but may eat plant matter; for the most part, though, it would not be a particular concern for parasaurs unless they fed on an unusual amount of decomposing plants. The most Parasaurolophus might notice of cockroaches would be the scent; they produce secretions that can smell quite foul, and with parasaur noses being fairly sensitive, this would be obvious to them.

Ankylosaurus

Although Jurassic World staff were able to successfully get Parasaurolophus to cohabit with the armored Ankylosaurus, for example in Herd M, the two species generally do not care to have much to do with one another. Ankylosaurus is a recluse and typically lives in small social groups, only interacting with other animals when kept in confined environments. It tends to attack only when provoked, and since Parasaurolophus seldom goes around starting fights, these animals are probably able to tolerate each other so long as food remains in good supply. They both feed close to the ground and largely eat ferns, but they are also able to eat somewhat different plant species, so they can avoid competing when there is a healthy diversity of plant life about.

Apatosaurus

Parasaurs prefer to stay close to other animals, especially sauropods like Apatosaurus. With their intimidating size they can ward off many kinds of predators, and they can often see danger coming from afar. Parasaurs, however, have keener hearing and smell, in addition to good eyesight. Their optimized senses may be able to detect sneakier threats that the sauropods could miss. By staying close together, Parasaurolophus and Apatosaurus can form a mutually-beneficial symbiotic relationship. They do not often compete for food, since Apatosaurus is able to feed from trees that Parasaurolophus is unable to reach. These two species were noted living in the same habitats on Isla Nublar, though their dispersal into the wider world means they do not see each other as often.

Arrowhead vine

A common vine species in western Isla Sorna is the arrowhead vine (Syngonium podophyllum), and it grows abundantly in forests where parasaurs feed. The dinosaurs must be careful of this vine, however, as it is entirely toxic and causes severe irritation. Animals that try to eat it will experience severe mouth pain due to oxalic acid in the sap, and the presence of raphides makes this plant an eye damage hazard.

Australian umbrella tree

Among the introduced species of Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna is the Australian umbrella tree (Heptapleurum actinophyllum), which was grown in the parasaur paddock in Jurassic Park. The fruits and leaves of this tree are edible and a favorite food of many modern mammals, and presumably dinosaurs could feed on them as well. If the parasaurs feed upon the fruits, they participate in spreading the seeds. At the moment it is unknown if any parasaurs remain on Isla Sorna where this plant grows in the western part of the island, and parasaurs are extinct on Isla Nublar.

Banana

A species of banana (Musa callimusa) found in the Gulf of Fernandez was grown in the parasaur paddock overseen by InGen’s Dr. Laura Sorkin, but showed no signs of feeding. This suggests that the fronds and shoots of this herb are not commonly eaten by Parasaurolophus, at least not when other options are available. It is unknown whether they will feed on the fruits. It sometimes used the fronds as cover, for example when an elder herd member needed to rest and stay hidden from predators.

Baryonyx

Normally, the spinosaur Baryonyx preys on fish, staying near wetlands and rivers. It does, however, hunt on land sometimes, and was known to prey on Parasaurolophus on Isla Nublar. They can defend themselves using evasive maneuvers, or just by physically ramming it. Compared to other theropods Baryonyx has a poor sense of smell and so may not notice well-hidden parasaurs. During the volcanic activity the island experienced in the later 2010s, environmental toxins killed off freshwater fish populations, which probably forced spinosaurs to find food on land more frequently. Baryonyx was known near Mount Sibo where the island’s last surviving Parasaurolophus population had largely congregated, the hadrosaurs also threatened by volcanic activity. An agile and nimble predator, Baryonyx may have played a role in the parasaur population dropping over the years, though there were plenty of other predators which contributed.

Becklespinax

During the 2022 DPW smuggling scandal, Parasaurolophus were sometimes kept in enclosures with the unusual theropod Becklespinax by corrupt DPW operatives. Through a combination of environmental peacekeeping measures, behavioral conditioning, and the theropods being fed enough, no conflict between predator and prey was reported. Becklespinax has yet to be reported in the wild, so it and Parasaurolophus may not even live in similar habitats naturally.

Brachiosaurus

Sauropods are the preferred companions of Parasaurolophus, and Brachiosaurus is perhaps its favorite. This towering herbivore is a social animal that happily tolerates smaller creatures in its environment; they are able to feed on the tops of trees while parasaurs eat plants closer to ground level, so as long as food is abundant, there is seldom competition for resources. The great size of the brachiosaurs keeps some predators at bay, and they are also able to spot danger from farther off thanks to their height. Parasaurs, on the other hand, are watchful animals with keen senses of vision, smell, and hearing, and they may detect danger hidden in places the brachiosaurs cannot see. Adult brachiosaurs have few predators, but they are vulnerable while in the juvenile stage, so having parasaurs on the lookout for medium-sized predators hidden among the trees can benefit the brachiosaurs considerably more during the breeding season. On both Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna, as well as in Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary, Parasaurolophus and Brachiosaurus have frequently been sighted associating with one another.

Carnotaurus

The swift and powerful theropod Carnotaurus is known to have lived in regions of Isla Nublar where Parasaurolophus was sighted, but they inhabit slightly different environments. Parasaurolophus is a forest-dwelling animal, while Carnotaurus lives closer to the edges of forests where it can ambush prey from cover. It also can survive on open grasslands, where generally there are fewer parasaurs. However, neither species is restricted to its preferred environment. Parasaurs often venture into grasslands in search of water sources, and are more likely to come out in the open when other, more powerful herbivores are in association with them. A hungry carnotaur can also find food deeper into the forest than it normally lives, and a parasaur would make for a substantial meal. However, the two have yet to be reported interacting.

Central European red deer

In Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary, the Central European red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus) is stocked to provide a food source to carnivorous animals aside from their multimillion-dollar prehistoric neighbors. While not being preyed upon, the deer may freely interact with the other animals in the valley, such as the herbivorous dinosaurs. Interactions with Parasaurolophus are not well known, but they can be found all across the sanctuary including places where parasaurs come to eat, drink, and socialize. Since it is at least tolerant, if not friendly, with many kinds of herbivorous animals, Parasaurolophus probably takes no issue with deer in its habitat and may appreciate their watchful eyes—as well as the fact that the deer give predators an easier target to subdue.

Ceratosaurus

The medium-sized theropod Ceratosaurus was found in parts of Isla Nublar where Parasaurolophus roamed during its time in the wild between 2015 and 2018, though examples of predation have not been reported. The two animals were sometimes observed around a watering hole together, the parasaurs tolerant of the carnivore since the environment created conditions not suitable to hunting. So long as the Ceratosaurus did nothing to disturb the peace, the parasaurs could remain calm too. Ceratosaurus is not the bravest of theropods and usually hunts animals smaller than itself, so juvenile parasaurs would be more likely to be preyed upon than adults.

Coast redwood

The coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is a massive species of tree that is found in some parasaur habitats, such as Isla Sorna and Isla Nublar where it has been artificially introduced. With branches of mature trees far higher than a parasaur could ever hope to reach, these trees would only provide it food in the form of fallen limbs and cones. Parasaurolophus will eat conifers, so fallen redwood branches would be a good food source for it. Saplings would be more easily accessible and could be eaten by parasaurs, inhibiting the trees’ spread. Should any of these huge trees die and topple to the forest floor, their branches would be placed right where the parasaurs could easily reach, and as the wood rotted, it would provide a rich contribution to the ecosystem which parasaurs would benefit from too.

Compsognathus

While it can threaten smaller animals, Compsognathus is not really a danger to fully-grown parasaurs, and understandably it does not bother them. With its minute size a compy would be very unwise to try and fight an animal so many times larger than itself. Instead, compies are beneficial to parasaurs because they act as a cleanup crew. When a parasaur dies, compies will scavenge its flesh greedily. Eliminating the carcass helps to curb the spread of disease and gets rid of the smell of meat, which could otherwise attract bigger, more dangerous carnivores.

Compies will even eat the dung of herbivorous creatures, which allows them to access nutrients otherwise unavailable to them. Parasaurs eat a lot and thus produce a lot of waste, so they are an abundant source of nutrients to the compies, and their dung also draws in swarms of flies and other insects that the compies can feast on. In exchange, the compies keep the parasaurs’ habitat clean, eliminating another source of scent that predators might pick up on as well as consuming insects that might spread disease. Though compies might be a danger to eggs and juveniles, they normally live harmoniously in mutualistic symbiosis with their parasaur neighbors.

Coral reef araucaria

An introduced species on Isla Nublar, the coral reef araucaria (Araucaria columnaris) is a species of conifer that grew in parasaur habitats in Jurassic Park. It is unknown whether it was introduced as a food source or as an ornamental plant, but conifers are commonly eaten by Parasaurolophus, and this plant was probably a part of its diet. If any of these trees survived later in the island’s history they may have continued to yield food, but they appear to have been less common during the Jurassic World period.

Corythosaurus

Parasaurolophus enjoys the company of other species, even hadrosaurs that might compete with it for food. When both species were common on Isla Sorna, Corythosaurus was one of its frequent companions, forming interspecies herds and mingling together without any issue despite the island’s overpopulation problem at the time. It may be that both animals benefit from the greater number of herd members looking out for danger, as well as the larger number of targets for predators to attack; with two different species herding together, each species was half as likely to be preyed upon as it would be alone. There may be other reasons that these hadrosaurs seek each other out that we do not yet understand, such as social functions they serve to one another. However, when danger does strike, they will flee together but not necessarily look out for each other; they can be seen pushing and shoving in order to get to safety first.

Since Corythosaurus is now very rare, it has only occasionally been seen alongside Parasaurolophus. Illegal breeders sometimes raise them together, but it is unknown if they do this on purpose or if raising multiple dinosaur speciess is just common enough that those which are friendly toward each other can wind up together purely by coincidence.

Domestic goat

On Isla Nublar, a population of feral goats (Capra hircus) existed on the island from 1993 onwards, not being cleaned up until the early 2000s by the company which left them there. While a simple goat would be of little threat to a fully-grown parasaur, these animals are notorious as ecologically destructive invasive species. Goats and parasaurs might not fight one another, or even see each other as competition necessarily, but the goats would certainly have devoured large amounts of plant life that the parasaurs depended upon. The pressure of carnivorous dinosaurs and other wildlife preying on goats was likely all that kept them from eating most of the island’s low-growing flora.

Dreadnoughtus

Though they coexist in Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary, Parasaurolophus does not form associations with Dreadnoughtus as often as it does with Brachiosaurus. The exact reason for this is not obvious, but it may have something to do with each sauropod’s social behaviors. While Brachiosaurus is gregarious and therefore will communicate with the animals around it very readily, Dreadnoughtus lives in much smaller groups and communicates less. Since they are so large, an approaching predator may not register as a threat to them at all, and they can safely ignore it unless they have eggs or young to guard. With Dreadnoughtus being naturally aloof, it is probably just better for Parasaurolophus to live closer to sauropods that are better at mutualistic relationships. Dreadnoughtus is otherwise not aggressive and therefore is safe for parasaurs to be around, even if its relationship to them is seldom more than neutral.

Edmontosaurus

Parasaurolophus often herds with other hadrosaurs, and on both Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna, it was known to live in the same ecosystems as the larger Edmontosaurus. Unfortunately, Edmontosaurus has been one of the least successful de-extinct species. It has become re-extinct at least once, and probably twice. It seems to prefer more lightly wooded areas than Parasaurolophus, but otherwise has similar environmental preferences, so they definitely encountered one another. On Isla Sorna, they cohabited in the northeastern and possibly southwestern forests, and on Isla Nublar, they cohabited in the central valley area. Edmontosaurus may have become extinct on Isla Sorna in the early 2000s, and on Isla Nublar sometime between the end of 2015 and beginning of 2018. Evidence of a new de-extinction for this species has yet to surface, so there is once more an existential gap between it and Parasaurolophus that inhibits their interaction.

European larch

The most common tree species in Biosyn Valley is the European larch (Larix decidua), a type of conifer. Much of the valley is occupied by a sprawling larch forest. The trees support a lush ecosystem of plants that parasaurs can feed upon, though their precise diet in the valley is not known. With a thickly-wooded area parasaurs also have plenty of opportunity to hide from danger, but the trees do not discriminate, and predators have just as much opportunity to set up an ambush.

Florida strangler fig

One of several strangler fig species found on Isla Nublar, the Florida strangler fig (Ficus aurea) is a plant that shapes its ecosystem as it grows. It begins life as an epiphyte, but as it matures, it locks its host tree in a woody embrace and gradually kills it. While this could harm trees that Parasaurolophus feeds on, the fig tree itself would come to yield leaves and fruit that the parasaur could eat. At all stages of its life cycle it provides habitats to various small animals that enhance the ecosystem Parasaurolophus lives in.

Gallimimus

Smaller and more skittish than Parasaurolophus, the theropod Gallimimus has been seen forming associations with this hadrosaur on Isla Sorna, and inhabited similar ranges on Isla Nublar as well. It also coexists with it in Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary. In all cases, it is not clear whether there is a specific ecological relationship between the two, or if they simply prefer similar habitats and tolerate one another. There are a few ways they could benefit, though. Gallimimus is preyed upon heavily by many kinds of animals, relying on keen senses and speed to stay alive even more than Parasaurolophus. In much the same way that parasaurs gain help from sauropods to watch out for danger, Gallimimus could immediately alert parasaurs to an approaching threat, and the large size of parasaurs could keep away the smaller carnivores. Parasaurolophus could also crush plant life and stir up insects as it moves, providing food sources for Gallimimus. On the other hand, Gallimimus is low on the food chain but still higher than Parasaurolophus, since it is an omnivore, so it could steal and eat their eggs during the breeding season.

Giganotosaurus

For a time in Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary, the apex predator was Giganotosaurus, a mostly-nocturnal hunter with impressive size and speed. In spite of all the obvious differences between it and other apex predator theropods, the role that Giganotosaurus plays in the lives of Parasaurolophus is hardly any different from the role played by other giant carnivores such as Tyrannosaurus: it will try and eat the hadrosaurs, and they will try to avoid this. The only major difference is that Tyrannosaurus will sometimes hunt during the day as well as at night, whereas Giganotosaurus spends most of the daylight hours sleeping. Since Parasaurolophus is mostly diurnal, it would be wise to find safe, secluded places to sleep in order to avoid this predator. It is possible that, following the 2022 incident, Giganotosaurus is extinct in the valley and has been replaced by Tyrannosaurus, causing relatively little change for Parasaurolophus.

Horse

In addition to herding with similarly-sized herbivorous dinosaurs, Parasaurolophus also appreciates the company of mammals within its size range and ecological niche. In North America, it has been observed forming associations with feral horses (Equus ferus caballus), moving across the Great Plains in combined herds. Not much is known yet about how their interactions play out, but it may be that Parasaurolophus plays a role in keeping away smaller predators. While it is often preyed upon by dinosaurs, the horse’s main predators are mammalian and few of them have experience tackling something as big as a parasaur. With less predation, horses need less physical exertion, allowing them to conserve their energy and keep their bodies from overheating. This is especially important as the climate grows warmer. Horses are also flight animals, much like Parasaurolophus, liable to flee as soon as they spot danger; like with the dinosaurs it prefers, the parasaur probably benefits from the company of horses in this way.

Domestic horses have also proven effective at getting along with Parasaurolophus, and have therefore become a kind of emissary between humans and parasaurs as well. The natural running speed of a human would never catch a parasaur at full flight, and vehicles would frighten them away, but horses can keep pace and do not inherently scare parasaurs. So long as the horses are accustomed to being around big loud animals, they are able to help their human companions manage these dinosaurs in the wild and captivity alike.

Human

Although they are naturally skittish owing to their many predators, parasaurs are not normally afraid of humans (Homo sapiens) and will often ignore them unless provoked. Humans can benefit from nearby parasaurs some of their senses are more acute, so a human can be alerted to approaching danger before it comes into their range of perception. In theory the favor could be returned, since humans have access to tools that could fight off a predator, but they seldom actually live in parasaur territory and more often are just casually encountering the dinosaurs. Humans do, however, enjoy watching and listening to these dinosaurs as they call to one another. Parasaurs are a common feature in de-extinction facilities for this and other reasons.

However, the human attraction to parasaurs can also cause harm. Beyond the animals simply being rounded up for captivity, which can stress them out already, parasaurs have proven one of the prime targets for poachers seeking to make easy money off of their biological products. A fully-grown parasaur may be slaughtered for its bones, as well as its meat and hide. They have defenses against being hunted down, including their size and speed but also numbers. Like with any predator, they can deal with humans by trying not to be the slowest or clumsiest member of their herd. Meanwhile, wildlife management authorities attempt to bring the parasaurs to safety in order to discourage crime. As described above, humans often enlist the help of horses to facilitate interaction with parasaurs, since these animals are ecologically similar and can coexist without issue. Poachers and wildlife management alike will frequently ride on horseback while herding parasaurs wherever they need to go. The parasaurs may not be able to discern the humans’ intention very easily, so a rider could mean salvation or doom and the dinosaur would never know the difference.

Hybrid locust

During the 2022 Biosyn Valley incident, the habitat that the parasaurs lived in was damaged by a wildfire caused by a swarm of hybrid locusts, which Biosyn CEO Lewis Dodgson had attempted to burn alive in order to cover up his complicity in their creation. Parasaurs in the wild, especially in the American Midwest where this insect was deliberately released and became invasive, probably saw their food sources depleted by the swarms until Henry Wu developed a method to exterminate the insects in early 2023.

Iguanodon

Though little is known of their relationship, Parasaurolophus coexists in Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary with Iguanodon, another species of herbivorous ornithopod. Both of them have roughly similar diets and could possibly compete for food, but parasaurs have already proven quite skilled at living amidst animals just like this. Its excellent hearing and eyesight, as usual, could help notice danger before the Iguanodons do. In turn, if these species herd together, the burly Iguanodons are better at fighting off predators than Parasaurolophus is: they are stronger, with muscular arms and spike-clawed thumbs that could pierce of lacerate a predator with ease. There is fossil evidence of Iguanodon surviving in ecosystems that included many other herbivorous dinosaurs, suggesting that in the modern day it would not be surprising to see them forming associations with Parasaurolophus.

Influenza A virus

In Jurassic World: Evolution, parasaurs are particularly susceptible to avian influenza, which is caused by the influenza A virus (genus Alphainfluenzavirus). The symptoms of this kind of influenza are variable due to the virus’s high mutation rate, but epidemics within bird populations are widely known, and the same can be expected in non-avian dinosaurs. Since the immune systems of Mesozoic life forms are adapted mostly to diseases that no longer exist, they can quickly fall victim to illnesses that impact their modern relatives.

Laughing kookaburra

An introduced species on Isla Nublar, the laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) is a predatory bird known for its distinctive vocalizations. While originally native to Australia, it was brought to Isla Nublar by human intervention some time ago and was established on the island by the time Parasaurolophus arrived. These birds remained common on the island well into the 2010s. While their range overlapped considerably with that of Parasaurolophus, there are no reported interactions between the two species. Kookaburras often nest in holes in trees, so on Isla Nublar, they may have had to contend with parasaurs feeding from places where they were nesting. On the other hand, the presence of parasaur herds may have kept smaller predators away.

Lux alga

A species of algae (probably a colonial heterotrophic dinoflagellate, but its classification is unknown) that inhabits freshwater-flooded lava tubes on Isla Nublar was utilized for its DNA by InGen’s Dr. Henry Wu. Genes from this organism were spliced into the genome of Parasaurolophus walkeri, creating a variant termed lux. The resultant parasaurs emanate a constant bioluminescence in various colors, making them visually stunning but especially vulnerable to predation. The alga itself actually constituted the majority of their diet for a period of time. Since few plants can flourish underground, the lux parasaurs instead fed upon the very same algae that gave them their glow. The algae does not grow in the water directly, but rather on the moist surfaces of the cave rock above the water line. Since many algae are harmful when eaten, and such a visually obvious species probably has natural defenses against predators, InGen most likely modified these parasaurs with ways to safely eat and digest the lux alga for nutrition. However, they can still eat the same foods as normal parasaurs.

Maiasaura

In the game Jurassic World: Evolution 2, the Parasaurolophus particularly likes Maiasaura as company. However, these two species of hadrosaur have not been seen interacting in the film canon proper.

Majungasaurus

While they have so far only been seen together under captive conditions, Parasaurolophus becomes instinctively frightened around the surly abelisaurid Majungasaurus. Encounters in the wild are so far undocumented, and in fact no Majungasaurus have been seen preying on Parasaurolophus even in captivity, but there are few animals that this theropod will not view as food. It is far from unreasonable for a parasaur to fear this predatory theropod.

Mamenchisaurus

Parasaurolophus often herds with sauropods, and on Isla Sorna, the huge Mamenchisaurus was one of those that it formed associations with. This is among the longest of dinosaurs, with a neck that can reach almost forty feet in length, and InGen specimens have even longer tails than their ancestors. The reason that Parasaurolophus prefers the company of sauropods is because these two kinds of dinosaur can benefit one another in a mutualistic symbiotic relationship. Sauropods are large and intimidating, so the sheer size of an animal like Mamenchisaurus would deter some predators. The height of these animals also enables them to spot danger from a distance. Parasaurolophus, however, has better eyesight, hearing, and smell, which can allow it to detect hidden threats that sauropods might not notice. Although the Mamenchisaurus is one of the less social sauropods among its own kind, it does like having a variety of other animals nearby, and since it can feed from the tops of trees that other species cannot reach there is less chance of competition between herbivores. If it knocks down a tree while feeding, it would also provide the parasaurs with food they could not usually reach.

Mantled howler

Parasaurolophus was not the first species of highly vocal herbivore on Isla Nublar. Even before it was brought to the island, those forests were home to mantled howlers (Alouatta palliata), a species of monkey. Among the larger monkeys of the Americas, this species is known for the male’s loud cries which could be heard all across Isla Nublar in the 1990s when the dinosaurs were first introduced. Whether their cries bothered the parasaurs or not is unknown, or vice versa, but these sound-sensitive animals must certainly have been aware of one another. For the most part the monkeys live in trees, far above where the parasaurs feed. They are folivores, with leaves constituting most of their diet. They may also feed on fruits and play an important role in speading seeds through the rainforest. Parasaurs and monkeys may have sometimes faced competition for food with one another.

Metriacanthosaurus

In the Jungle River area of Isla Nublar, the theropod Metriacanthosaurus was exhibited for Jurassic World and eventually was turned out into the wild when the park was decomissioned. While not especially large, it was big enough to be a danger to Parasaurolophus and was an aggressive hunter which lived in the same kinds of wooded environments. There are no recorded interactions between the two, though, and Metriacanthosaurus became extinct on Isla Nublar in early 2018. While plenty of other predators continued to hunt the island’s parasaurs, this one was no longer of concern.

Microceratus

One of the smallest de-extinct dinosaurs, Microceratus is a herbivorous ceratopsian growing to only a few pounds which lived alongside Parasaurolophus on Isla Nublar. It originally lived near the Jungle River, but after Jurassic World’s closure in 2015, both species migrated northwest and eventually settled in the foothills of Mount Sibo. There are no current examples of interaction between the two herbivores, but the larger size of Parasaurolophus could protect Microceratus from smaller predators. Alternatively, they might have no particular relationship and simply enjoy the same kind of ecosystem.

Moose

During the years between 2018 and 2027 when they were found throughout North America, part of the range of Parasaurolophus overlapped with that of the moose (Alces alces), the largest extant deer species in the world. While parasaurs are generally friendly toward other megafauna and have been known to associate with hoofed mammals, moose are not always so tolerant of competition for food and territory. Moose are smaller than parasaurs but more aggressive. On the one hand, they might see parasaurs as a threat to their food supply and try to push them out. On the other hand, moose have many predators, which parasaurs could help defend against. The nature of their ecological relationship remains unknown. Moose are also native to northern Eurasia, including Russia which had widespread parasaur populations in the early 2020s. While parasaurs are now absent from latitudes where moose live, their interactions may have been quite varied simply because of how many different ecosystems they once shared.

Nasutoceratops

Larger ceratopsians can be difficult to live alongside. Nasutoceratops is one of the species that existed in the same time and place as Parasaurolophus during the Cretaceous period, and now that both have been resurrected, they coexist again. Though they have been known to live near one another in forest ecosystems, close interactions have not been noted. Since they do not commonly associate with each other, it is not known whether parasaurs could benefit from the protective effects of a Nasutoceratops herd, or if they would compete for food and territory too much to live together. It should be noted that the species which lived alongside Nasutoceratops in prehistory was P. cyrtocristatus, while P. walkeri is the most common de-extinct species.

Nublar tufted deer

The Nublar tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus nublarus) inhabited the dense wooded ecosystems of Isla Nublar and would have encountered the released Parasaurolophus once they were allowed to roam the island. These mammals can be fairly skittish, but if they had the courage to do so, they might have benefited from associating with Parasaurolophus. Having a much larger animal nearby could keep them safe from some of their predators. Tufted deer are crepuscular, so they could also benefit the parasaurs by being active during twilight and nighttime hours. Parasaurs are mostly diurnal, and might appreciate having a companion keeping watch during the night. However, no associations between these creatures was reported, and with the 2018 eruption of Mount Sibo causing extreme ecological damage to the island, both of them may have become locally extinct.

Ouranosaurus

On Isla Nublar, Parasaurolophus has been observed herding with Ouranosaurus, another species of herbivorous ornithopod. While not a hadrosaur itself, Ouranosaurus is considered a hadrosauriform, closely related to the hadrosaurs. The specifics of their relationship are unknown; while parasaurs are known for being social with other species it is unknown if this feeling is mutual with Ouranosaurus or if they simply inhabit the same ecosystem and congregate together for protection from predators. They have not been seen cohabiting in the wild off of Isla Nublar, though the extreme rarity of Ouranosaurus could be an element in this.

Okapi

In central Africa, Parasaurolophus has been seen interacting with the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), a very rare and mostly solitary mammal related to the giraffe. Parasaurolophus commonly herds with social animals, so it may not frequently form long-term bonds with okapi since they prefer to live alone. The nature of their ecological relationship is not well known, though imagery used by the Department of Prehistoric Wildlife suggests that these two species can coexist. The diet of the okapi consists of understory vegetation, and since the Parasaurolophus can feed at a range of heights, it may be able to feed on plants that the okapi has no interest in. If they are able to tolerate each other, the okapi could benefit from the keen senses of the parasaur detecting predators quickly. The okapi’s main predator is the leopard, which uses ambush tactics similar to those of small theropods that the parasaur has evolved to survive.

Pachycephalosaurus

Parasaurs have been seen herding with Pachycephalosaurus on Isla Sorna, and have been able to cohabit in captivity. Pachycephalosaurus is considerably smaller than Parasaurolophus, but it is more aggressive. Parasaurolophus, on the other hand, has few defenses aside from its bulk. While these animals freely associate with one another, not much is known about their interactions. Parasaurolophus is a more generalist feeder than Pachycephalosaurus; the latter cannot effectively eat tough fibrous plants, so the parasaurs may clear out these hardier species and let the pachycephalosaurs feed on what is left over such as seeds and softer leaves. Herding together may also make their unit better defended against predators. Like with many of the species that parasaurs herd with, their keen senses probably help the pachycephalosaurs by giving an early alert when predators are nearby. With their smaller size, Pachycephalosaurus are a little more vulnerable to predation. They do have an effective defense against smaller carnivores, this being their strong headbutt attack. A combined herd of these two species could both fend off lesser predators and successfully avoid greater ones.

Pachyrhinosaurus

One of the less aggressive ceratopsians, Pachyrhinosaurus would make for a decent companion alongside Parasaurolophus herds, but so far the two have only been seen together in captivity. They both are known to live in similar forest environments, suggesting that the lack of observed interactions is merely due to how rare de-extinct animals are in the modern world. Were they more common, these animals might coexist more frequently.

Peloroplites

Skeletons of the ankylosaur Peloroplites have been seen in regions of Isla Nublar where Parasaurolophus once roamed, but by the time the former’s presence was documented in 2018, it had potentially become extinct on the island. Parasaurs were barely doing better, with only a handful left alive. It is not known whether they had any noteworthy interactions.

Platanillo

The platanillo (Heliconia collinsiana) is a species of heliconia introduced to Isla Nublar by the 2000s, primarily grown in the central valley where Parasaurolophus was known to live. Its fruits are commonly eaten by birds, so non-avian herbivorous dinosaurs may be able to eat it as well. During the time that both existed on Isla Nublar, the platanillo may have provided a food source to Parasaurolophus in the valley in the form of its leaves, flowers, and fruits.

Ponderosa pine

Before their overall migration southward, parasaurs were known to herd in Colorado, where the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) made up a major component of their ecosystem. These huge trees create unique forests within their range and support many kinds of insects, birds, rodents, deer, and other animals, with Parasaurolophus temporarily being among them during the late 2010s and early 2020s. During its time there, it most likely fed upon fallen branches and cones, since the living branches of mature trees are extremely high up. Saplings were probably a component of the parasaur diet. The numerous plants supported by the ponderosa pine forest ecosystem were part of how the parasaurs were able to survive in western North America for those tumultuous years.

Poor man’s umbrella

One of Isla Nublar’s native species, the poor man’s umbrella (Gunnera insignis) bears large leaves which give it its common name. During the 2000s, it was known to grow in the island’s central valley where Parasaurolophus and other herbivorous dinosaurs lived, likely providing them with food in the form of its leaves, flower stalks, and stems.

Pteranodon

While aggressive and carnivorous, the pterosaur Pteranodon is not quite large enough to be a major predator of adult parasaurs, though it is strong enough to kill a juvenile (and likely would, given the opportunity). Parasaurolophus tends to live in semi-open areas and sticks near water sources, which Pteranodons also like; their diet includes a lot of aquatic life so they flock near oceans, lakes, and rivers. Even if their behaviors and diets have little direct impact on each other, the presence of one animal would still affect the other in some ways. As previously mentioned, Pteranodons often prey on juvenile dinosaurs, so adults must keep an eye out for airborne threats. The pterosaurs can also become agitated by loud noises, so vocal parasaurs could upset them. If a fight broke out, the adult parasaur would rely on its body mass to crush the wings of the pterosaur while avoiding stabs from its sharp beak. For the most part, though, Pteranodons probably ignore parasaurs living in their ecosystem. Since Pteranodons can drive away smaller carnivores with their territorial behavior, they might result in fewer threats to a nearby parasaur herd.

Rainbow eucalyptus

Though an introduced species, the rainbow eucalyptus (Eucalyptus deglupta) flourished on Isla Nublar prior to the volcanic activity of 2018, and Parasaurolophus were known to live in areas where it grew. While a major component of forests on the island, it was probably not a major food source, since its leaves are somewhat toxic. Essential oils in the leaves are harmful when eaten in large quantities. The only animals that can eat this tree’s leaves are certain marsupial species that have evolved to specialize in tolerating its toxins, so it is unlikely that a dinosaur which evolved before eucalyptus trees existed would be able to eat them safely.

Scorpios

For a period of a few months in early 2016, the most destructive predator of Parasaurolophus on Isla Nublar was a hybrid theropod dubbed Scorpios rex. This was the prototype of Dr. Henry Wu’s artificial hybridogenesis project, and being a prototype, it was plagued with numerous physical and psychological health issues. A dangerous combination of a fine-tuned predator’s body and a set of physiological and anatomical conditions that caused perpetual high distress, this animal became a voracious predator which emerged periodically to slaughter any suitable prey it could find. Many of its prey items were the island’s abundant herbivores; at the time it first appeared, Parasaurolophus was relatively common, but this changed during its reign of terror. The artificial animal was equipped with muscular limbs, sharp talons, and unhinging jaws as well as potent neurotoxic venom, making it more than capable of killing a parasaur with ease. Unlike other predators, the Scorpios is a habitual surplus killer, taking far more victims than it needs to eat right away. Instead, it stashes its kills someplace to return to at a later time.

Under particular threat was the lux variant, which exhibited bioluminescence due to having genes from a freshwater protist spliced into its genome. This kind of Parasaurolophus was intended for a park exhibit, not survival in the wild, and so when their cave ecosystem was invaded by Scorpios, they were all driven out into the open where it and other predators could pick them off easily. Unable to conceal their bioluminescence, they could not hide at night. This variant appears to have vanished from the island before the wider habitat collapsed due to volcanic activity in 2018. Bioluminescence does appear in some modern parasaur lineages, but this appears to have naturally re-emerged, possibly due to interbreeding between the lux variant and normal parasaurs.

Sinoceratops

The Sinoceratops is one of the least aggressive ceratopsians, avoiding confrontation if it can. This puts it in contrast with other, less friendly relatives such as Triceratops. Parasaurs have been spotted herding with Sinoceratops on Isla Nublar, both in and out of captivity. This ceratopsian strikes an ideal balance between being capable of defending itself and its herd from most predators and being tolerant enough of other herbivores to let them graze nearby. Parasaurolophus may also benefit them in the same manner that it helps many of its interspecies herd-mates, using its acute senses to detect danger quickly. Parasaurs are visual and auditory animals, and since they have fewer defenses than ceratopsians, they survive through their ability to get a head start on escaping danger. Parasaurolophus is more likely to detect an approaching threat than Sinoceratops, and its usual response to detecting a predator or other danger is to give a loud alarm cry. This alerts not only its own species, but every other animal around. Sinoceratops, upon hearing this call, would be on the lookout for the threat and preparing to fight or flee.

Soft fern

The soft fern (Christella dentata) is a species of fern that, while not native, is common on Isla Nublar. Parasaurs that once lived on the island likely utilized it as a food source due to its abundance. They also used it to hide elder herd members while they rested, keeping them hidden from predators. It is likely that they used fronds for other similar purposes such as the construction of nests. Water extract from soft ferns is known to be toxic against leukemia cells, with similar potency to some anti-cancer drugs. Since hadrosaurs are susceptible to cancer, eating soft ferns may aid their survival rates.

Soybean

The soybean (Glycine max) is a legume which was introduced to Isla Sorna as a food source for herbivorous animals, likely chosen by InGen for its low price and high lysine content. They had deliberately engineered their de-extinct animals to be lysine-deficient, dependent upon supplements provided by the company. However, all animals obtain lysine from their diets anyway, so to survive, the parasaurs simply sought out more lysine-rich plants in the wild. Soybeans spread from captivity into the Isla Sorna ecosystem, yielding a healthy food supply for the herbivorous animals.

Spinosaurus

On Isla Sorna, the apex predator Spinosaurus lived and hunted in water sources that cut through parasaur territory. It is often thought of as a piscivore, but in reality it can eat whatever it pleases, and if it could ambush a parasaur it would find itself a hearty meal. In 2001, a parasaur carcass was seen in a forest within its territory, but it is unknown what animal actually killed the hadrosaur. On the other hand, the only known spinosaur on the island at the time was territorial toward other theropods such as Tyrannosaurus, which regularly eats parasaurs. If tyrannosaurs were removed from the ecosystem through competition with Spinosaurus, local parasaurs would exchange a predator which primarily hunts them for a different predator that only sometimes does. Access to Isla Sorna has been restricted for some decades, however, meaning it is presently unknown whether or not either species still lives there.

Stegosaurus

Although Stegosaurus and Parasaurolophus have been safely kept together in captivity, they generally only come together in the wild when space is constrained and their preferred foods are in the same place. On both Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna as well as in Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary, these two species have been seen living close by one another yet not interacting. Stegosaurus tends not to be social with other animals very often; while some individuals are passive, not quite friendly, others can be ill-tempered. Stegosaurus are also not very bright. This combination means that they may give any unexpected sight a swipe with their tails, and even a glancing blow can badly injure a victim. Stegosaurus herds are well-defended against predators, but they may just be too risky for a Parasaurolophus to spend much time around. Curiously, though, they do make very similar calls when frightened or aggravated. This means that a stegosaur would recognize a parasaur’s cry as a sign of danger, and vice versa, even if they are not within the same herd.

Stygimoloch

Though fairly rare on Isla Nublar, northern reaches of the island were once home to Stygimoloch, a dinosaur closely related to Pachycephalosaurus. Since Parasaurolophus has been seen associating with Pachycephalosaurus, it may form similar social units including Stygimoloch, similarly benefiting from the smaller dinosaur’s ability to defend against threats. However, Stygimoloch is a bit more timid than Pachycephalosaurus, preferring to flee from predators rather than fight, though it will certainly give a powerful headbutt when provoked. There may be one other reason they are not commonly seen together, and that is the fact that Stygimoloch interprets high-pitched sounds as a challenge. If a parasaur made any sort of whistling cry, it might find itself rammed in the flank. These dinosaurs have not been seen herding together, and so far have only been spotted in the same area on Isla Nublar when forced together by a natural disaster.

Suchomimus

One of the larger spinosaurs, Suchomimus was known to inhabit the Jungle River area of Isla Nublar. When Jurassic World was open, invisible fence technology kept predator and prey separate. After the park’s closure, that barrier was deactivated, making it possible for Suchomimus to prey on Parasaurolophus. Fish constitute much of its diet, but like most spinosaurs, it will also hunt on land when it wants a change in diet or cannot find enough food in the water. In the wild, Suchomimus has been seen attempting to prey on Parasaurolophus, albeit unsuccessfully. Though its teeth are perfect for capturing aquatic prey, it is less skilled at taking down large dinosaurs. Still, it is a threat that parasaurs should be wary of around water sources.

Sugar pine

The tallest and most massive of its genus, the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) is known on Isla Sorna in the island’s northeastern regions. Here, parasaurs commonly herd and feed, with this pine tree providing shade as well as supporting a diverse ecosystem of plant life that the parasaurs could eat. Its saplings, fallen branches, and notably lengthy cones could also have been food sources that parasaurs would benefit from. However, it is unknown if parasaurs can still be found on the island, since data about its current status is heavily restricted.

Swiss cheese plant

A common plant species on Isla Nublar, the Swiss cheese plant (Monstera deliciosa) grows in areas where parasaurs used to live on the island. Unripe fruits contain calcium oxalate crystals and are mildly toxic, but the ripe fruits are perfectly edible and were likely food for the island’s parasaurs. They regularly interacted with this plant in other ways, such as using its large leaves to hide elder herd members from predators while they rested. Since this plant is common in Latin America and has been introduced elsewhere around the tropics, parasaurs in the modern world probably continue to utilize it in their new environments.

Taro

The taro (Colocasia esculenta) is an edible plant species common in the forests of Isla Nublar, where it has been artificially introduced and was widespread by the 2010s. Its leaves are rich in nutrients, providing a substantial amount of vitamin K and other vitamins and minerals. Parasaurolophus on Isla Nublar probably fed upon this plant; not only the leaves are edible, the stems and roots are also nutritious.

Teratophoneus

A carcass of a Teratophoneus, a type of tyrannosaur, was seen in a region of Isla Nublar where Parasaurolophus were known to roam as of 2018. With no live specimens spotted, this carnivore may have been extinct by that time, but while it was alive it likely used its speed and ambush tactics to attack, kill, and eat parasaurs. Along with the many other predators on the island, it probably contributed to their population decline. Tyrannosaurs tend to favor hadrosaurs as prey, and with Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus having lived in the same prehistoric ecosystem as Teratophoneus, a taste for this particular herbivore may already have been coded into its instinct.

Therizinosaurus

In the game Jurassic World: Evolution 2, the Parasaurolophus is specifically said to dislike Therizinosaurus. While the two have not been observed interacting in canon, both do inhabit Biosyn Genetics Sanctuary together and could feasibly encounter one another. Therizinosaurus is territorial and does not tolerate other herbivores eating its food, sometimes fatally attacking perceived competition. The threat of death is one understandable reason why Parasaurolophus might not particularly like Therizinosaurus as a neighbor.

Triceratops

For many herbivores, living alongside Triceratops is a decision made by weighing risks and benefits. It is one of the most aggressive ceratopsians, and with its huge and deadly horns, it can fight off most kinds of predators that threaten it. All a parasaur would have to do would be alert the Triceratops to a nearby threat, and the horned animal would take care of the rest. The cries they use when frightened or agitated are even very similar, making communication easy in that respect. The downside to having Triceratops neighbors is also their aggression. While they normally leave alone the adults of similarly-sized herbivores, they can bully smaller animals, including juveniles. In fact, sometimes Triceratops can prevent the juveniles of other species from eating altogether, letting them starve to death. Parasaurs must be careful during the breeding season. These two dinosaurs have been housed together in captivity without much issue. In the wild, they often inhabit the same ecosystems, but tend to give one another a respectful amount of space and only come close together when circumstances force it.

Trumpet tree

An invasive species on Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna, the trumpet tree (Cecropia obtusifolia) is a plant found in humid forests which yields edible fruit that many birds and mammals consume. With parasaurs common in its ecosystem, they probably feed on these fruits as well, aiding in distributing the seeds (which are typically not digested). The leaves and stems are well-defended by Azteca ants and so are not commonly eaten by many animals. Parasaurs have defenses in the form of their scaly skin, but their mouths, nostrils, and eyes are soft and vulnerable. Presumably they do not enjoy being bitten by ant swarms, so one could not blame them for sticking strictly to the fruit of the trumpet tree.

Tyrannosaurus

On both Isla Sorna and Isla Nublar, the chief predator of Parasaurolophus has historically been Tyrannosaurus rex, an apex predator which preferentially dines upon hadrosaurs. It often attacks by ambush, lurking in the shadows of larger trees and bursting forth once prey has strayed too close to escape easily. To combat this, Parasaurolophus has excellent vision and hearing, as well as a good sense of smell. Tyrannosaurus evolved later in time, so while it has had more chances to evolve into a specialized hadrosaur hunter, it may also have adaptations to feed on animals that did not use the same strategies Parasaurolophus did millions of years earlier. All the same, though, there is ample evidence of Tyrannosaurus feeding heavily upon Parasaurolophus owing to its evolutionary advantages and simply how common parasaurs once were on these islands.

Over time, the parasaur population on at least Isla Nublar plummeted to almost nothing. Between 2016 and 2018, heavy predation reduced their numbers from a breeding population of several dozen to around five adults. Tyrannosaurus, which had previously fed upon these animals during the period between 1993 and 2002, was likely a major culprit in their near-extinction despite there only being one tyrannosaur in the wild on the island. Since Tyrannosaurus is still relatively rare, and not nearly as widespread as Parasaurolophus is around the world, interactions today are limited to those few places where both animals coexist.

Velociraptor

While not large compared to many theropods, Velociraptor can pose a threat to Parasaurolophus if it employs its intelligence to come up with a strategy. Weaker parasaurs are usually the easiest targets, and in some cases one raptor by itself may be able to take down a wounded or older parasaur if it plans carefully. It will often aim for the throat, attacking where its prey is most vulnerable. If its veins and arteries or trachea are severed, even a full-sized Parasaurolophus will have little time to fight back before it succumbs to its injuries. An even greater threat is posed by a group of raptors cooperating to kill prey. If they work together, raptors can separate their intended victim from the herd, corral it into a trap, and all close in to make the kill as a single unit. This allows them to subdue prey larger than themselves with ease. There is good evidence that parasaurs are common victims of this, with parasaur carcasses being seen in raptor territory on Isla Sorna.

Cultural Significance

Symbolism

Although not everyone knows its name, this hadrosaur is one of the most famous dinosaurs by visual appearance alone, and is a common favorite. It was notably the first de-extinct animal that billionaire Simon Masrani ever encountered, and held a special place in the heart of the man who built Jurassic World. The distinctive shape of its head crest sets it apart from other dinosaurs and is often used to demonstrate the diversity of hadrosaur skulls; hardly a dinosaur encyclopedia is published without this herbivore somewhere within. It is also popular with paleoartists, since a variety of species within the genus exist and their ecology is relatively well-understood.

It is fairly ubiquitous in films, comics, and video games, though it is sadly often used merely as a background creature to fill out herds and as fodder for predators. The interesting social lives of these dinosaurs are frankly overlooked in popular culture. However, like other hadrosaurs, its “cute” appearance endears it to countless people who prefer their dinosaur media to be a bit more friendly.

In Captivity

Parasaurolophus is one of the most consistently featured dinosaurs in de-extinction theme parks, with most people at least recognizing its distinctive appearance even if they might not know its scientific name. This dinosaur was first planned to be featured in Jurassic Park in the 1990s, being present in two different paddocks visible from the main road as well as an access road used to transport VIP guests and staff from the helipad. It was one of several dinosaurs that decorated the mural of Les Gigantes within the Visitors’ Centre, featuring both P. walkeri and the smaller Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus, which was once incorrectly thought to be the female version of the larger species. With extensive research put into this dinosaur’s behavior patterns and biological needs, it was one of the first de-extinct species that could be raised in captivity with a high degree of success.

This animal was also intended to appear in Jurassic Park: San Diego, which aimed to open its doors by the end of 1997. InGen CEO Peter Ludlow, who replaced Dr. John P. Hammond earlier that year, had listed this species as one for the Harvester expedition to capture; they secured a single male parasaur for the Park. It was released by animal rights activist Nick Van Owen during the night.

It was finally put on exhibition in 2005 with the opening of Jurassic World. One of just eight species present when the park first opened, it consistently featured in three attractions of the island’s central valley: the Gyrosphere, Gallimimus Valley, and Cretaceous Cruise. In particular, a variety of parasaur was genetically engineered for the River Adventure section of the Cretaceous Cruise, modified with algal genes to exhibit bioluminescence, a trait they share with Stegosaurus (though the stegosaur’s bioluminescence is derived from cnidarians rather than protists). Juveniles were exhibited in the Gentle Giants Petting Zoo where guests could interact with them more closely. While parasaurs are not the most thrilling or famous of dinosaurs, their unique appearance and friendly, social nature endeared them to many guests. Many people find their communicative vocalizations to be hauntingly beautiful; since parasaurs frequently socialize in the evening, they enhanced Isla Nublar’s beauty as sunset approached.

This dinosaur flourishes in captivity so long as it is kept in herds and given a proper habitat. With fairly few defenses against predators other than size, speed, and numbers, it is one of the few dinosaurs that can really be said to do better in captivity than in the wild. Since it is naturally prone to socializing and seldom picks fights, it can be kept alongside other dinosaur species very easily, and can even form bonds with its caretakers.

Science

Fossils of this dinosaur are somewhat rare, but some good-quality remains have been discovered. Historically, paleontologists debated the nature and function of the crest, suggesting that it had applications in breathing, display, or combat; the most widely-accepted theory now is that it was used for social displays and vocalization, though it may also have served to cool the brain. De-extinction has allowed scientists to put their theories to the test: InGen has determined that the social functions of the crest are essentially as paleontologists predicted.

During the 1990s, this dinosaur was studied extensively by paleogeneticist Dr. Laura Sorkin and her assistant David Banks, providing us with much of the information about parasaur behavior we have today. This includes the function that body coloration serves in social structure, identification of altruistic behavior, and interpretation of the feeding, mating, and warning cries. During the 1993 incident, Dr. Sorkin released her four parasaurs believing that they would be able to feed themselves in the wild until she returned; she was not aware yet that the park was slated for deconstruction. She also used the parasaurs as a justification to put her adenovirus-based cure for the lysine contingency into the Park’s water supply, which treated all of the dinosaurs on the island.

Parasaurolophus is the first de-extinct organism confirmed concretely to have two different species bred by InGen. In other animals, multiple subspecies or color morphs and variants have been bred; in Pteranodon there were once thought to be two species, but one has since been reclassified into a different genus. Apatosaurus may have a similar situation. This means that Parasaurolophus, with the species P. walkeri and P. tubicen both known, is the first to definitely have more than one species in its genus brought back to life.

Politics

Parasaurolophus itself is an inoffensive creature, but has become embroiled in a few controversies. The first was most likely Dr. Laura Sorkin’s decision to reverse InGen’s lysine contingency using an adenoviral gene therapy. She informed her colleagues that she was going to apply it to her Parasaurolophus research specimens, not informing them until later that the research paddock water supply was connected to the water mains for all of Jurassic Park. This effectively cured all of the island’s dinosaurs.

Throughout 2017 and 2018, images of Parasaurolophus as a part of Isla Nublar’s ecology were often used by the Dinosaur Protection Group to garner support for the dinosaurs’ survival. The animal was portrayed as a vital part of the food web, sustaining the island’s larger carnivores. As the eruption of Mount Sibo became inevitable, the DPG reported that Parasaurolophus was in a particularly precarious position due to its proximity to the volcano. Despite extensive lobbying from the DPG, Masrani Global Corporation opted to take no action citing expenses as a major concern and the United States and Costa Rican governments followed suit. Instead, the Lockwood Foundation stepped in to fund an illegal operation on Isla Nublar to capture and relocate the animals without government approval or knowledge. While the Foundation’s creator Benjamin Lockwood had intended to house the animals on his private island, his estate manager Eli Mills instead intended to sell them on the black market.

When the capture operation took place in June of 2018, only one wild parasaur was seen; the rest had been captured by the mercenary team led by Ken Wheatley. No parasaurs are known to have been sold at the black-market auction the following day, but multiple parasaurs were released into the wild. Since then, authorities have struggled to control illegal breeding, which often sees the animals released once they grow too big to be managed. Herds of wild parasaurs often spring up in various places around the world due to illegal cloning, breeding, and releases. This may actually become an entirely different issue: they are a freqeunt target of poachers, who can often be more dangerous than any dinosaur. Relocating wild parasaur herds is not just about protecting de-extinct and modern organisms, but also about discouraging crime.

Resources

As one of the easiest large herbivores to keep in captivity, Parasaurolophus is a go-to choice for de-extinction theme parks and has consistently been one of InGen’s mainstays. It is attractive and distinctly different, comes in a wide range of colors, and exhibits friendly and interesting behaviors that make it fun to observe. While it is not a thrilling beast, it is quite an endearing crowd-pleaser whose main drawback is its complicated name. Perhaps its popularity is the reason that InGen was attempting to breed a second species of this dinosaur. Unfortunately, Jurassic World closed before Parasaurolophus tubicen could be given the attention its smaller relative has long enjoyed.

While both of these species probably have fairly similar biology, their distant relation to modern forms of life means that their biochemistry is unlike most present-day species. Many organisms are used for biopharmaceuticals, and de-extinct life forms are particularly valuable because their biochemistry is so different from commonly available species. The medical applications of Parasaurolophus biology have not yet been tested, but since hadrosaurs appear to be more susceptible to cancer than other kinds of dinosaurs, they may have potential in cancer research. It does serve some ecological purposes thanks to its adaptable diet. It can chew its food, allowing it to act as a grazer keeping plant life in check. The dung it produces can probably be used as fertilizer, though sauropod dung is more popular. Of course, it still is viewed as a source of entertainment, leading to people trying to capture, ride, or breed this attractive animal. Handling such a big creature is best left to experts hired for these specific purposes, and illegal captive breeding of Parasaurolophus may become a problem.

For one of these reasons, Parasaurolophus were collected by hunter Ken Wheatley for sale on the black market at an illegal auction held in 2018 at the Lockwood estate. This was organized by the Lockwood Foundation’s manager Eli Mills as an effort to fund the research of fugitive geneticist Henry Wu, who was living under Mills’s protection at the time. Since no parasaurs are believed to have been sold, it is unknown what prices they would have fetched, but Mills expected each dinosaur to sell for millions of dollars.

Since they have been released into the wild, parasaurs have become targeted by poachers. Dinosaur bones are believed by some people to have medicinal properties, with powdered Parasaurolophus bones selling for as much as US $3,000 an ounce as of late 2022. A healthy adult parasaur can be slaughtered for around US $500,000 worth of bone powder. Living animals can bolster their region’s ecotourism, but also tend to increase poaching activity. If crime becomes a problem, relocating the parasaurs may be necessary.

Safety

Parasaurolophus is not generally a dangerous or threatening dinosaur, as it is more likely to flee from danger and is non-aggressive. The main threat is being in the way of a frightened parasaur, as it is not likely to notice a human in its path while charging away from danger. This animal can weigh between two and four tons, making it easily capable of crushing a human, as has nearly occurred on a few occasions (notably during the 2001 incident on Isla Sorna). If you are charged by a parasaur, the best course of action is to quickly dive or roll out of its way. These animals are agile but not as much as you; they are more likely to be fleeing something than attacking you, so they will probably continue along their way. If a herd is charging toward you, it is probably better to find any available shelter, such as a sturdy tree or a crevice in rocks you can hide in. Should no shelter be accessible, try to keep toward the middle of the herd, where the juveniles are; this will keep you safer from being trampled by the adults. Still, your main goal will be to get out of the dinosaurs’ way and hide until they pass. Be wary of your surroundings, though: whatever is chasing them is probably nearby.

Only one occasion of unprovoked parasaur attack has been noted: during the 2015 incident, the Parasaurolophus lux were encountered by Camp Cretaceous members in kayaks on the Jungle River. The dinosaurs approached the campers, but unexpectedly became aggressive after a few seconds and began ramming the kayaks. Wild animals are always unpredictable at best; keep your distance from them and do not interact unless a trained expert is present to supervise. A sudden reaction from a parasaur could crush you even by accident. If you need to approach the dinosaur, stay within its line of sight and do not make sudden movements.

Realistically you will probably not be attacked by a parasaur, but keeping a close eye on them can aid you in other ways. They are wary, and any unexpected sound or sight can startle them. Their senses are acute and they will probably detect predators before you do. While it is advisable to give them a safe distance from you and stay out of their way, it may also be prudent to keep them in sight if you belive carnivorous animals to be hunting in the region. If the parasaurs start to run, you may want to go in the same direction.

Behind the Scenes

Production-wise, we know from The Making of The Lost World (p.25) that gender differences were intentional in the design phase of pre-production to indicate differences between male and female versions of the animal.

“‘We had to design new paint schemes not only for the new dinosaurs, but for some of the already-designed dinosaurs from the last movie,’ Winston explained, ‘because now there were male dinosaurs, as well as females; and typically in nature the males of any species are far more brightly colored. We also wanted to make sure that the audience would be able to tell the males and females apart. It was a great of fun to run the gamut of color and come up with interesting designs. The colors on the females for the first film had been fairly subdued; but with male animals, there were may more possible colorations.’”

If the herds are indeed persistently gender divided, some have postulated that the Parasaurolophus females are territorial, and the source from this comes from an informational video at Isla Adventura. There is a concept art piece featuring a design of the female Parasaurolophus that doesn’t quite bear a similarity to what we see in the films as well. The many variances seen in Parasaurolophus could even be another example of versioning by InGen and we are in fact seeing both males and females together. We just can’t say for certain based on the information we have available to us.

Notable Individuals

Elvis – male parasaur targeted by the InGen Harvester expedition

Sorkin’s Parasaurs – group of 4 females in a 1993 behavioral study

Disambiguation Links

Parasaurolophus walkeri (S/F-Ride)

Parasaurolophus walkeri (C/N)

Parasaurolophus walkeri (JN)

Parasaurolophus walkeri (T/C)

Parasaurolophus walkeri (L/M)

Parasaurolophus lux (L/M)

Parasaurolophus walkeri (IDW-DG)

Parasaurolophus sp. (CB-Topps)